


UC-NRLF 




ISO 



GIFT OF 
Prof fi.J.Mckson 



MAIN umHA*Y-AO>ClJl-TUWE DCT 





"A river ran through Eden and watered the garden." 

Book of Genesis. 



^^. 



IRRIGATION FARMING 



A HANDBOOK 



FOR THE 



PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF WATER IN THE 
PRODUCTION OF CROPS 



BY 

LUTE: WILCOX 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

1895 



u^ 






MAIN LiMtAirr.A<Mticui.TUK 

< ol'YRIGHT, 1895, 
BY ORANCiE JUDD COMPANY. 



PREFACE. 




RRIGATION has become such 
an important factor in modern 
agricultural pursuits, and is 
becoming more or less essen- 
tial in all parts of our vast 
domain, particularly in the 
western half of the United 
States, that the need of more 
specific knowledge pertaining 
to this great science seemed 
the imperative demand of the 
hour, and it is on this hypothesis that the author has 
essayed to indite this volume. In treating upon so wide 
and diversified a subject as universal irrigation, I have 
endeavored throughout to make all points touched upon 
as explicit and comprehensive as possible, avoiding all 
useless verbiage, and handling the subject as under- 
standingly as lay within my power of diction. 

The text of the work is based largely upon personal 
experience, although it is but fair to add that some of 
the deductions contained in these pages, especially as to 
those in which the technical features are most prom- 
inent, are adapted from the observations of others. I 
have relied somewhat upon the valuable knowledge of 
hydraulic engineers and scientists, and have accepted 
the best authorities attainable whenever technical mat- 
ters had to be considered. 

One strong position taken by the writer all through 
the work is the importance of consistent and scientific 



;1 26 703 



VI PREFACE 

cultivation in connection with all irrigation operations, 
as the one is just as essential as the other and the two 
are indispensable in attaining the most perfect results. 
"Till and keep tilling" is my most potent axiom. I 
have deprecated shiftless methods in cultivation as de- 
rogatory to the best success, and have condemned the 
practice as inexcusable as the wanton waste of water 
itself. In all the conclusions that I have made 1 
have used the judgment afforded by twenty years' actual 
experience in the field, and if these lessons prove of any 
benefit to the agricultural masses I shall feel that this 
work has not been in vain and that the labor has been 
worthy of its hire. 

LUTE TVILCOX. 
DENVER, COLORADO, 1895. 



CONTBNT^. 



Page. 
CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF IRRIGATION 1 

CHAPTER II. 

ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION 11 

CHAPTER III. 

RELATION OF SOILS TO IRRIGATION 19 

CHAPTER IV. 
TREATMENT OF ALKALI 29 

CHAPTER V. 
WATER SUPPLY 36 

CHAPTER VI. 
CANAL CONSTRUCTION 42 

CHAPTER VII. 

RESERVOIRS AND PONDS 62 

CHAPTER VIII. 
PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES 81 

CHAPTER IX. 
FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 93 

CHAPTER X. 
DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER 108 

CHAPTER XI. 
METHODS OF APPLYING WATER 127 

CHAPTER XII. 

IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS 152 

CHAPTER XIII. 

IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN no 

CHAPTER XIV. 

IRRIGATION FOR THE ORCHARD 194 

CHAPTER XV. 
THE VINEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS 208 



Mil CONTEXTS. 

Page. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

ALL ABOUT ALFALFA -.2 

CHAPTER XVII. 

WIN DMILLS AND PUMPS 242 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

DEVICES, APPLIANCES AND CONTRIVANCES 268 

CHAPTER XIX. 

SfK-IRRIGATION AND SUBSOILING 282 

CHAPTER XX. 

c. -M MON LAW OF IRRIGATION 204 

GLOSSARY OF IRRIGATION TERMS 304 



CHAPTER 1. 

THE HISTORY OF IRRIGATION. 

The magic science of irrigation is as old as civiliza- 
tion itself in fact it was in vogue during the semi-bar- 
baric days of prehistoric times. The use of irrigation 
for the production of crops probably antedates Noah's 
deluge by several thousand years. The earliest writer 
of agricultural lyrics was Hesiod, a Greek epic author 
who lived a thousand years before the Christian era. 
He often refers to irrigation as practiced for ages prior 
to his time by the Chinese people, of whom he seems to 
have had considerable knowledge. In Plato's Timaeus 
is an account of the sunken island of Atlantis. This 
account Plato obtained from his ancestor Solon, the law- 
giver, who had visited Egypt, and in the city of Sais ob- 
tained the information from an Egyptian priest. Solon 
lived about 2500 years ago, and according to the story 
told 'him by the priest there existed about 10,000 years 
before his time a large island in the Atlantic ocean, op- 
posite the Pillars of Hercules, otherwise the Strait of 
Gibraltar, which was divided into ten kingdoms and 
ruled by the descendants of Poseidon. The description 
of the island is very minute, and among other things 
also is described a very extensive and elaborate system of 
irrigating canals, constructed in such manner as to utilize 
every natural stream and completely surround the island. 
While the history of Atlantis is by many regarded as a 
myth, there are too many facts actually in existence to 
warrant any such conclusion. According to this record, 
irrigation was in practical use fully 12,500 years ago. 

1 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



The English and French hydrographic engineers of the 
present age have found by the most careful soundings of 
the Atlantic ocean that the sunken continent of Atlantis 
has a physical existence, and that it also has the remain < 
of great canals still defined upon its submerged surl'acv. 
Twenty-seven centuries before the Star of Bethlehem 
shone so brightly by night, a clever Egyptian ruler named 
Menes turned the course of the Kile so as to carry the 
turbid waters well out upon the higher ground, upon 
the very site of the present operations of the English 
engineer Wilcocks. Menes invented the nilometer, still 
in use to-day for gauging streams. The first artificial 

lake of which there 
is any reliable record 
is Lake Moeri's. The 
historians Herodo- 
tus, Diodorus and 
Pliny have" described 
it, on the testimony 
of the inhabitants of 
the country, as one 
of the noblest works 
of the time, from its 
enormous dimensions 
and its capacity for 
irrigation for the benefit of mankind. According to 
them it was about 3GOO stadia or 413 miles in circumfer- 
ence and 300 feet deep. Modern travelers have consid- 
erably reduced the circumference and depth of this lake, 
making it measure somewhat less than fifty miles in cir- 
cumference, but even with this curtailment it must 
have been a magnificent engineering work, worthy of 
the admiration of all the ages. It was constructed, some 
historians say, by King Moeris ; others, by Kinu r 
Amenemhet in the 12th dy misty, 2084 H. 0. In the 
20th dynasty S.-ti \va> the ruling monarch, and is believed 




VK',. 1. IltltlOATION 5000 YEAIIS AGO. 



THE HISTORY OF IRRIGATION. 3 

to have been the first man who acquired the knowledge 
of civil engineering and applied his learning particularly 
to hydraulics, for he introduced irrigation in the valley 
of the Nile by means of systemic engineering. He built 
a great reservoir in a natural catchment basin and con- 
structed canals in one vast system. Seti was no doubt 
the first person to sink an artesian well, for the Greek 
historians speak of this as "the well from which water 
flowed over the top." He used the well in supplying 
water to the great temple of Karnak. Sesostris, one of 
the most illustrious kings of antiquity, who reigned in 
Egypt 1491 B. C., had a great number of canals cut for 
the purpose of trade and irrigation, and is said to have 
designed the first canal which established communica- 
tion between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The old- 
est monument at Thebes has a representation of a naked 
fellah under a dom palm tree drawing water from the 
Nile with a well sweep or shadoof, a reproduction of 
which is shown in Figure 1, and the fellah of to-day does 
it the same way, except that two or more usually work 
together on a large turn beam. 

By the time that Moses, the great leader and law- 
giver, appeared to lead the enslaved children out of 
Egyptian slavery, irrigation had made great progress in 
a general way, for in the book of Deuteronomy we are 
told something of their agricultural methods in these 
words : "For the land whither thou goest in to possess 
it is not as the land of Egypt from whence ye came 
out, where thou sowedst thy seed and wateredst it with 
thy foot as a garden of herbs. But the land whither 
ye go to possess it is a land of hills and valleys and 
drinketh water of the rain of heaven." There are in 
Egypt sections of country that have been in constant 
use for over four thousand years and still the soil shows 
no sign of wearing out, for such is the nature of the 
water of the Nile that the annual deposit of sediment 



THE HISTORY OF IRRIGATION. 5 

more than recompenses the drainage by the immense 
crops. An illustration of such a farm will he seen in 
FigureS. The plats are laid off in squares divided !>;. 
the irrigation furrows. 

China is equally celebrated with Egypt for the 
great antiquity of its numerous canals. The Great or 
Imperial canal is one of the most stupendous works of 
ancient or modern times. It is 650 miles long and con- 
nects the Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse-Kiang rivers. It is 
available both for navigation and irrigation, and together 
with its numerous branches irrigates an immense area of 
country, thus affording millions the means of livelihood 
and support. Immense tanks, reservoirs and irrigating 
canals appear to have been constructed in India many 
centuries anterior to the advent of Christ, and some of 
them are probably equally as ancient as the Egyptian 
canals. The Assyrians were equally renowned with the 
Egyptians from the most remote periods of history for 
their skill and ingenuity in the construction of hydraulic 
.works. Through the foresight, enterprise and energy 
of their rulers, they converted the sterile country in the 
valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris into fertility, which 
was the theme of wonder and admiration of the ancient 
historians. The country below Hit on the Euphrates, 
and Samarra on the Tigris, was at one time intersected 
with numerous canals, one of the most ancient and im- 
portant of which, called the Kahr Malikah, connecting 
the Euphrates with the Tigris, is attributed by tradition 
to Nimrod, king of Babel, 2204 B. C , while other his- 
torians assert that Nebuchadnezzar constructed it. 

Among the ancient works at Babylon, with its 
fabled hanging gardens, was a lake 42 miles in circum- 
ference and 35 feet deep, to store the flood waters of the 
Euphrates and distribute them for irrigation. The 
Nahrawn canal, taken from the Tigris river, was over 
400 miles long, and varied in width from 250 to 400 



6 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

feet, and by numerous branches on both sides it irrigated 
a very extensive area of country, while at the same time 
it was also available for navigation. With the destruc- 
tion of Babylon the glory of the Mesopotamia!! Empire 
departed, the canals were neglected, and the country de- 
scribed by Herodotus as being prolific before all other 
lands in its production of corn, wheat and barley has 
become so dry and barren that it cannot be cultivated, 
and is inhabited only by nomadic bands of Bedouins 
and the scurvy, wandering Arabians. 

In the book of Ecclesiastes we read of the hidden 
springs and sealed fountains of Solomon, from which 
the water was piped to the plains below. The remains 
of reservoirs in the neighborhood of Hebron, which the 
Jews are supposed to have constructed in the days of 
Solomon for the supply of Jerusalem, show that their 
designers were equally alive with most engineers of the 
present age to the great importance of an ample and 
constant supply of water. The Phoenicians, in the 
zenith of their power, were celebrated for their canals, 
both for the supply of Carthage with drinking water 
and for purposes of irrigation. They were a very dili- 
gent people, and so imbued were they in the cause of 
irrigation that they made aqueducts through mountains 
of solid granite, hewing the way with hand chisels. 
Many of these prehistoric works still remain. 

The Greeks, judging from the ruins of large aque- 
ducts scattered throughout the country, appear from a 
very remote period to have paid the greatest attention to 
hydraulic science. Herodotus describes an ancient con- 
duit for supplying Samos, which had a channel three 
feet wide and which pierced a hill with a tunnel nearly 
a mile long. Another masonry aqueduct near Patara 
crossed a ravine 200 feet wide and 250 feet deep. Vir- 
gil, that nio-t charming of Roman poets, in referring 
t<> irrigation in his First Georgic, 88 



THE HISTORY OF IRRIGATION. 7 

What may I say of that industrious swain 
Who, like a soldier following spear with sword, 
The grain pursues just cast into its place, 
Ami rushes on it the adjoining heap 
Of soil that is illy rich, then leads the stream 
And following streams upon the planted grain ; 
And when the burnt-out field with dying growths 
Is hot, behold, he brings the saving wave headlong, 
Down through its slanting path ; its falling calls 
From rounding rocks a murmur hoarse, and cools 
With scattering rills the parched and thirsty fields." 

The Grecians were an inventive people and to them 
are ascribed great improvements in the way of mechan- 
ical contrivances for raising water. Principal among 
these is the tympanum wheel, afterward adopted by the 
K : vptians, as shown in Figure 3. 

In the reign of Emperor Nero, Rome was supplied 
by no fewer than nine large conduits, having an aggre- 
gate length of 255 miles, which delivered over 173,000,- 
000 gallons of water daily. Afterwards the supply was 
increased to 312,500,000 gallons daily. Most of the 
Roman works were constructed for the supply of cities 
with drinking water, and such were built in all countries 
under Roman control. That of Claudia was 47 miles 
long and 100 feet high, so as to furnish the hills. Mar- 
tia's was 41 miles, of which 37 were on 7000 arches 70 
feet high. These vast erections would never have been 
built had the Romans known that water always rises to 
its own level. 

Julius Caesar in his efforts to conquer the world 
carried the irrigation idea into Great Britain, and his 
subservient soldiery constructed many miles of artificial 
water courses, or rather superintended the work, which 
was done manually by the people whom they had en- 
slaved by conquest. When Constantine was sent to the 
Bosphorus to found the great city which bears his name 
he detailed certain numbers of his army for canal work, 
and they built many permanent irrigating works. 

The Spaniards are the best irrigators in the world ; 
they have been applying water artificially for over oOOO 



8 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

years and have thoroughly familiarized themselves as to 
its uses, adaptability, application, etc. Modern travel- 
ers tell us they have the best constructed works of any 
people, and many of these works were made prior to the 
Moorish occupancy. The solid masonry, the handiwork 
of men living before the advent of the Christian epoch, 




FIO. 3. GRECIAN TYMPANUM WHESL. 

is still extant and in actual use. What was done with 
irrigating science during the dark ages we know but 
little. 

Coming down to more modern times, and looking at 
the western hemisphere through the murky vista of the 
years, we find that irrigation has existed as an aid to 
agriculture for many centuries antedating the advent of 
the Caucasian. Arizona is full of the remains of ancient 
towns and irrigating canals, and in Taos, Simla !>. Va- 
lencia and Grant counties, New Mexico, the existing 
ruins of similar structures point to a dense population 
existing at some remote period under some form of or- 



THE HISTORY OF IRRIGATION. 9 

ganized government. The ivnniaiits of this nation or 
nations are found in the Pueblos of Acoma, Cochita, 
Isleta, Jemez, Laguna, Moqui, Nambe, Picuris, Zuui, 
and others of New Mexico, and the Chihuahuas and 
Tequas and others along the Rio Grande in Texas. The 
writer has stood upon the ruins of La Gran Quivera and 
traced for miles with his eye the grade of a great irri- 
gating ditch. Ruins of ancient towns have also been 
found along the Pecos river in Texas. There are few 
streams in Arizona and New Mexico where traces of 
ancient works cannot be found. Earthquakes and wars 
with savage neighbors brought about the destruction of 
most of these works. The Spanish marauders under 
Cabeza do Vaca, and later on under Coronado, helped 
to bring about further decay. In Peru, the land of the 
Incas, and throughout Mexico and Central America, the 
early Spanish explorers found such magnificent irrigat- 
ing works that their astonishment was very marked. 
The elaborate appliances for irrigation were neglected 
and allowed to go to ruin. The now existing works do 
not compare in magnitude to the ancient works. Parts 
of Arizona and New Mexico were at some remote period 
densely populated and then abandoned. Quite exten- 
sive systems of irrigating canals of prehistoric origin 
have been found on the Colorado river, and parts of 
them have been adapted to the modern canals. At the 
Casa Grande and in the Salt River valley of Southern 
Arizona these canals may still be seen. Twenty-five 
years ago an engineer at field work near Riverside, Cal- 
ifornia, was running the level for a proposed ditch. He 
could not establish the grade satisfactorily, so he went 
again to the stream and reconnoitered for a new start. 
He was surprised to find an old acequia so old in fact 
that its banks were scarcely discernible and by care- 
fully following its course he was still more astonished to 
discover that it had brought him to his original objec- 



10 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

tive point, and on these lines the new canal was laid. 
The grade was all that could have been wished for. 

Among the old irrigation works are those in the 
vicinity of San Antonio, Texas, begun under the direc- 
tion of the Spanish Padres about 1715. With the erec- 
tion of the Spanish missions began the cultivation of 
the soil in Southwestern Texas. According to local 
tradition the worthy Padres were expert in rounding up 
the unfortunate natives and getting an unlimited amount 
of work out of them in the construction of mission 
buildings and irrigating ditches. The pay for services 
rendered was usually bestowed in the form of religious 
instruction, administered willy-nilly, and occasionally 
augmented by an extra inquisition, if the forced piety 
and humility did not agree well with the unwilling 
convert. 

The pioneer Mormons who settled in the fertile 
Salt Lake valley in 1847 saw the necessity of irrigation, 
and to their untiring efforts and attendant success is 
due much of the credit for the impetus given our more 
modern methods of artificial crop-watering. It took 
them two years to get their first canal into working 
order, and the work was done under the pressure of un- 
certainty and with many hardships and privations. In 
1870 the Greeley Union Colony was established in North- 
ern Colorado on a barren plain and an experimental sys- 
tem of ditching was begun in imitation of the irrigation 
fields in Utah territory. It was about this time that 
the California Arcadians took up the great art of supply- 
in. i: plant food with "the waters led captive," and ;it 
once irrigation sprang into new life and came seemingly 
in the nick of time to redeem America's arid wastes 
"and make the desert to blossom as the rose." 



CHAPTER II. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION. 

Some one has spoken of irrigation as the "wedding 
of the sunshine and the rain." A great many people 
hearing the word irrigation experience the same sensa- 
tions that they do when Madagascar or AViju is spoken 
of. They have a feeling that it is something a great 
distance off hard to reach intangible. They read 
about it as they like to read Arabian Nights or Hans 
Andersen's Fairy Stories, and it leaves on their minds 
about the same impressions of wonder, magnificence and 
untruth as do the stories named. To them the very 
word "irrigation" puts their reasonings to flight, and 
they imagine that the art of applying water to cultivated 
lands is some complicated and wonderfully intricate pro- 
cess, not easily understood or attained by mortal man. 
The fact of the matter is, as the author proposes to show 
in the succeeding chapters, that irrigation is as simple 
as child's play and may be accomplished by the most 
commonplace day laborer in the fields. In enumerating 
a few of the advantages attendant upon irrigating 
methods, we will cite the facts that irrigation reclaims 
arid wastes ; makes a prosperous country ; causes the 
desert to blossom and overcomes the destructive effects 
of the parching southern winds ; insures full crops every 
season ; improves land at each submergence, and con- 
sequently does not wear out the soil ; produces support 
for dense population ; multiplies the productive capacity 
of soils ; destroys insects and worms and produces per- 
fect fruit ; creates wealth from water, sunshine and soil ; 

11 



12 IRRIGATION FAKMIXG. 

makes the farmer independent of the rainfall , 
redeem 100,000,000 acres of desert lands in the United 
States alone; yields large returns to investors; adds 
constantly to the security of investments ; will yield sup- 
port for 50,000,000 of increased population in America ; 
makes the production of choicest fruits possible, and 
prolongs the harvest period of various crops if so desired ; 
affords a sure foundation for the creation of wealth ; les- 
sens the danger of floods ; utilizes the virgin soil of the 
mountain regions ; is now employing more than $1,000,- 
000,000 of capital ; insures two or more crops annually 
in the lower latitudes ; will increase three fold the value 
of lands having rainfall ; keeps off the early approach of 
Jack Frost; improves the quality and increases fully 
one-eighth and oftentimes one-fourth the size of fruits, 
vegetables and grains ; makes farming profitable in waste 
places and forever forestalls the inroads caused by the 
ghost of drouth ; and will finally solve the great labor 
question and fortify against the alarming increase of 
city populations. 

The farmer who has a soil containing an abundance 
of all the needed elements, in a proper state of fineness, 
cannot but deem himself happy if he have always ready 
at hand the means of readily and cheaply supplying all 
the water needed by his soil and growing crops, just 
when and in just such quantities as are needed. Hap- 
pier still may he be if, besides fearing no drouth, he has 
no rainfall to interrupt his labors or to injure his grow- 
in ir or harvested crops. And happier still may he be 
when he realizes that he need have no "off years," and 
he knows that the waters he admits to his fields at will 
are freighted with rich fertilizing elements usually far 
more valuable to the growing crop than any that he can 
purchase and apply at a costly rate a cost that makes 
serious inroads upon the profits of the majority of fann- 
ers cultivating the worn-out or deteriorated soils in the 



THE ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION. 13 

older States year by year. Fertilizers are already needed 
for the most profitable culture on many farms in Town, 
Minnesota, Eastern Kansas and Nebraska, in Missouri 
and in all States east of those named. 

In proof of this assertion the writer can best be 
qualified in his statement by mentioning the fact that 
there is an oat field in Sagnache county, Colorado, that 
up to 1894 had produced twenty-three consecutive crops, 
each of which averaged forty bushels to the acre through 
all the years. The yield of the twenty-third crop averaged 
sixty bushels, which would indicate that the fertility of 
that field was keeping up remarkably well without rest 
or rotation. This unusual result was made possible by 
means of irrigation alone, and there is no doubt much 
truth in the theory that the irrigating waters from the 
mountains contain great quantities of mineral fertilizing 
element in solution. Even by shallow plowing and the 
most shiftless methods of land preparation, a Mexican 
farmer named E. Valdez, of Chromo, Colorado, produced 
twenty-five consecutive crops of wheat 011 the same soil, 
and without manure or change of seed in the interim. 
This peculiar result was made possible only by the use 
of irrigating waters, applied as they were regardless of 
scientific principles or any defined method whatever. 
The yield the last season was forty-five bushels to the 
acre, as heavy as any throughout the quarter of a century 
of constant croppage. 

Irrigation farming has peculiar characteristics. It 
is a higher and more scientific industry than rain farm- 
ing; it succeeds best by what is known as intensive 
culture, or what is better described as scientific culture. 
The soil to be at its best should be carefully prepared, 
and cultivation ought to be minute and thorough. To 
make such agriculture pay such crops must be raised as 
will yield the greatest value to the acre. The irrigated 
lands are better adapted to the growth of orchards, vine- 



14 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



yards, gardens, potato fields, hop yards, tobacco and 
cotton plantations, and whatever extra work may be 
required to cover the land with water will be repaid 
ten fold from the first crop that is taken off. In travel- 
ing in the far west over long stretches of parched and 
dusty plains or through mountain gorges, the writer has 
often seen fields, orchards, vineyards and gardens all 
dressed in living green. The life, vigor and fruitfulness 




I Ii 4. IilVIIUMi LINK ItKTWKKN DKSKKT AM) OKCHAKU. 

were in surpassing contrast to the general aspect. And 
why this contrast ? Because of the tapping of mountain 
streams, fed by crystal springs or banks of perpetual 
snow, and turning a portion of their waters upon the 
lands. From great emim-nees the course of these life- 
giving water ways made by the hands of man could be 
traced by the eye, until they were lost in the dimness of 



THE ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION. 15 

distance. There was no need of being told where were 
the irrigating ditches. The eye of a novice could mark 
tlii'in with accuracy as they wound about the foothill 
slopes, dotting the landscape witli patches of emerald, 
where lone settlers and busy towns were located. An 
illustration of this condition is given in Figure 4, showing 
the course of an irrigating ditch dividing the unbroken 
prairie and a newly set orchard. 

It is in the horticultural pursuits that the highest 
degree of perfection as the patrimony of modern irriga- 
tion is to be realized. Under any system of irrigation 
where a constant supply of water is to be had the horti- 
culturist can plant with almost a certainty of gathering 
a crop. Untimely frosts, insects and fungous diseases 
are often to be contended with, but it is a great consola- 
tion to feel sure that drouth cannot prevent the starting 
of trees, plants and seeds in springtime, or cut short a 
growing crop. Neither are floods likely to overflow, 
except on low bottoms, and these are not the best places 
for the most profitable orchards. One field or a small 
portion of it can be watered without the rest being deluged 
or even sprinkled, if desired. 

It is the writer's desire at this time to direct the 
attention of horticulturists and farmers generally in the 
"rain belt" to the benefits to be derived from an artifi- 
cial supply of water to their crops. Some may scout the 
idea and say it is not practicable, that it will not pay to 
go to so much expense for the little use to be made of 
the water ; but in all seriousness it may be said that it 
will pay, and there are many places east of the arid 
regions where irrigation is now considered by those who 
have long tried it as almost indispensable. There is 
scarcely an acre of ground under cultivation in North 
America that would not produce more and better crops 
if there was at hand an abundant water supply. There 
aie seasons now and then in which the rains come just 



16 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

right and irrigation might not be needed even once, but 
they are rare. Usually there are several dry spells during 
each year that cause serious injury to the crops, and 
were irrigation possible all harm from this source might 
be prevented. A very little water at the right time would 
make all the difference with the crop and turn into success 
what otherwise would have been a partial or total failure. 
The work already put upon the land would be saved, as 
well as sjeeds and plants. Satisfaction and plenty would 
take the place of disappointment and scarcity. If eastern 
pomologists would only adopt irrigation there would be 
no good cause for having weakly plants and trees or for the 
premature dropping of leaves. The buds would develop 
early, and be plump and vigorous. There would be no 
winterkilling of trees and plants because of their feeble 
condition. Many things are considered tender that are 
so in some places only because of their inability to make 
sufficient growth to fortify against the evaporating influ- 
ences of" the winter. 

It would not be reasonable to expect that any of the 
many systems of irrigation can be applied to all sections 
of our country, or to every farm in any section. Neither 
is it always practicable that all of a large farm should be 
placed under irrigation, except in rare cases. But where 
there is now, or may be created a supply of water that 
can be drawn upon in time of need for at least a small 
part of the farm, it is a great mistake not to make uSe 
of its benefits. There are special crops, such as aspara- 
gus, celery and the strawberry, which need an amount of 
water that is not required by most others, and which 
could be grown much more cheaply than at present if 
aided by irrigation. In this connection it might be well 
to add that statistics show that in all rainy countries 
that is, where the farmers depend upon the rains to 
make their crops the seasons of drouth and the seasons 
of too much rain constitute three out of every five, 



THE ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION. 17 

giving the farmer three bad crops to every two good 
ones. As a matter of fact the intrinsic advantages of 
irrigation concern and are within reach of the farmer of 
the humid region quite as much as his fellow in the arid 
climate; and in many, if not in most, cases his wjiU-r 
supply will cost him less, and when once applied will 
never be given up. There can be no doubt that when 
the available waters of the humid region are examined 
in regard to the supplies of plant food they are capable 
of giving to lands irrigated with them, they will be found 
to be nearly, if not quite, as valuable in this respect as 
those of the arid region. 

Another suggestion along this line presents itself 
right here : As there is no material difference in the cost 
of cultivation of an acre yielding ten bushels of wheat 
and another acre yielding sixty bushels, it must be 
evident that the man who gets only ten bushels pays six 
times as much as does the man who produces sixty 
bushels. The profits to be derived from "the new agri- 
culture," as irrigation has aptly been called, comes not 
alone from the annual return from the watered acres, 
but from the constantly increasing valuation of the land 
itself. Many individual instances could be cited, espe- 
cially in regions devoted to fruit culture, where the returns 
are almost fabulous. Lands which were worth from two 
to ten dollars an acre have by the expenditure of from 
ten to twenty dollars an acre in the construction of irri- 
gation works become worth $300 an acre and upward. 
The same lands set out with suitable varieties of trees 
and vines have sold within five years of planting at $1,000 
or more an acre. So valuable are irrigated lands in 
Spain that they sell for $720 to $880 an acre, which is 
ten times the price of the unirrigated, and the same 
ratio of values prevails elsewhere. 

In summarizing the manifold advantages that the 
irrigation blessing has brought to humanity through all 
2 



18 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

the ages of persevering man, and anticipating those bone- 
fits that are to be commanded by "the nations yet to 
be," we may conclude that irrigation means better 
economic conditions; means small farms, orchards and 
vineyards ; more homes and greater comfort for men of 
moderate means. It means more intelligence and knowl- 
edge applied to farming, more profit from crops, more 
freight and more commerce because special products of 
higher grade and better market value will be enhanced. 
It means association in urban life instead of isolated 
farms. It means the occupation of small holdings. It 
means more telephones, telegraphs, good roads and swift 
motors ; fruit and garden growths everywhere ; schools 
in closer proximity ; villages on every hand, and such 
general prosperity as can hardly be dreamed of by those 
who are. not familiar with the results of even the present 
infancy of irrigation in America. It can hardly be 
doubled that in time the lessons conveyed by history, as 
well as by the daily practice and results of irrigation in 
the arid region, will induce the dwellers in the regions 
of summer rains to procure for themselves at least a pare 
of the advantages which are equally within their reach, 
putting an end to the dreadful seasons when "the skies 
are as brass and the earth as a stone," and the labors of 
' he husbandman are in vain. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE RELATION OF SOILS TO IRRIGATION. 

It was the blind poet Milton who said, "Fame is no 
plant that grows on mortal soil." He might have add- 
ed that famous plants are to grow on irrigated soil. 
The nature, condition and situation of soils compose a 
most important factor in successful irrigation, and 
should especially be understood by every person AY ho 
essays to apply water by artificial methods. In the first 
place it may be well to understand that primarily soil 
is rock disintegrated, dissolved or pulverized by the 
action of the air, water, and ice, aided chemically by the 
various salts and acids present in the soil, and fertilized 
by decayed vegetation, animal excretions, and chemical 
agents. 

Classes of Soils. Nominally there are two dis- 
tinct classes of soils the sedentary and transported 
soils, which embrace the drift and alluvial soils. Specif- 
ically soils are distinctive according to their physical 
characteristics, and may be classified as gravel, sand, 
clay, loam, marl, lime, salt, peat, muck or humus. Pure 
sand consists almost entirely of small grains of silica or 
quartz and is not a plant food. Plants cannot use it. It 
is insoluble in water and in acids, and has no adhesive 
tendency ; hence, acting as a divider in the soil, it 
makes the land easy to work and facilitates the 
passage of roots in search of food, and also allows the 
assimilation of irrigating waters. The amount of sand 
in the soil varies from eight to more than ninety per 
cent. It absorbs very little moisture or other fertilizing 

19 



20 IRRIGATION FARMIXG. 

material in the air, but retains heat much longer than 
does any other soil constituent. From these facts, then, 
it is evident that a sandy soil will be loose, easy to work, 
dry, warm and free from baking, but peculiarly apt to 
suffer from drouth when irrigation is not available, and 
lose valuable plant food by leaching, especially if the 
subsoil be sandy or gravelly. 

Clay Soils. Clay is a compound of silica and alu- 
minum. It is very seldom found pure, but contains pot- 
ash, lime and ammonia, etc., mixed with it, and some 
of these unite with it to form double silicates, which are 
exceedingly valuable on account of the potash, lime, or 
ammonia which they furnish to plants. Clay is not a 
plant food. It is not taken up by plants except by a few 
of the lower orders, but the impurities in it lime, pot- 
ash, etc. are absolutely essential to vegetable growth, 
and these at once become soluble under the influence of 
irrigating waters. Red clays always contain iron, and 
most clay soils are rich in potash, thus adding to their 
availability as plant food, and rendering them peculiarly 
adapted to such plants as require a liberal supply of com- , 
pounds. Clay gives body to the soil, and absorbs 
moisture readily. It absorbs heat much more readily than 
sand does, but has not the same power of retention. A 
clayey soil, then, is usually rich in phosphoric acid, pot- 
a.-h. ammonia, etc., holds moisture well and is adapted to 
withstand drouth, but is difficult to work and apt to bake 
after having been irrigated in summer, and is cold and 
wet in spring and fall. The amount of clay in soil varies 
from ten to ninety per cent, but the quantity of pure 
clay in heavy soils rarely exceeds thirty per cent. The 
clay soils of the far west are locally called "adobe," lie- 
cause it is of such soil that the adobe bricks are 
made by the native Mexicans and used in their pimple 
architecture. While iidobo soils are moro diUn-ult to 
work they are well adapted t,. irrigation, and it is on 



RELATION OF SOILS TO IRRIGATION. 21 

them that the best results are often obtained by western 
irrigators. 

Gumbo and Loam. Gumbo soil is a term applied 
to a class of heavy soils prevalent in the South, having a 
greasy feeling and a soapy or waxy appearance. The 
particles that compose the soil are very small, less than 
one one-hundredth of an inch in size, and there is but 
very little true sand present. These soils are always 
rich in alkali, particularly the potash compound. It is 
this potash that gives it the soapy appearance and greasy 
feeling. They fail to scour the plow because of the 
absence of sand, and the extreme fineness of the particles. 
No cheap chemical can improve these soils, but continual 
cropping gradually causes an improved condition by 
the gradual removal of the excess of potash. They are es- 
pecially adapted for grass and hay crops. Gumbo is 
more impervious to water than most soils are and as a rule 
requires much less irrigation. Loam soils comprise 
those molds ranging between sand and clay and possess- 
ing more or less each of these two constituents. They 
constitute what may be termed the happy medium, and 
are really the most desirable kinds of earth on which to 
ply the irrigator's art. The term loam is a most indefi- 
nite characterization on account of the various constitu- 
ents which it contains. For instance a heavy clay 
loam has but from ten to twenty-five per cent of sand. A 
clay loam is twenty-five to forty per cent of sand and the 
sandy loam is from sixty to seventy-five per cent of sand, 
while the light sandy contains from seventy-five to 
ninety per cent. 

It has been demonstrated by practical experiments 
that one hundred pounds of sand will absorb twenty-five 
pounds of water ; one hundred pounds of loam forty 
pounds ; one hundred pounds of clay loam fifty pounds; 
one hundred pounds of clay seventy pounds. This ex- 
plains why some soils always appear drier than others, 



22 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

why some soils will stand a drouth so much longer than 
others, and why after an irrigation some soils become 
like a thick paste while others are dry. Sandy soils 
usually break up loose and mellow when dug, forked or 
worked in any way; black land is stiff, breaks up in hard 
clods when worked either too wet or too dry, and re- 
quires more cultivation both before and after plants are 
put in them than does sandy soil. 

Humus. The humus is the organic portion of 
the soil, resulting from decayed vegetable matter. It is 
of a dark brown or black color, the blacker the better. 
A good example is well-rotted leaf mold. The chief 
constituent of humus is carbon, but it contains all the 
other compounds found in plants, and by its gradual 
decay these all become available as plant food in the 
most desirable form. Humus is the chief source of 
nitrogen in the soil. A black soil rich in humus is sure 
to be rich in nitrogen. The remarkable fertility of vir- 
gin soils is largely due to the nitrogenous humus which 
they contain. Of all soil constituents, humus has the 
greatest power to absorb and retain moisture, and to draw 
moisture from the subsoil by capillary attraction, and 
it is in this power that is manifested its valuable util- 
ity immediately on the application of irrigating waters. 
It also possesses in a high degree the power to absorb 
ammonia from the air, and by its dark color it adds 
warmth to the soil during the day, while by cooling 
quickly at night it assists in causing dew to be deposited 
upon the soil which contains it. Humus also improves 
the texture of the soils, by making clay soil more friable 
and sandy soil more" compact and retentive. The 
amount of humus in fertile soils is quite variable, but 
usually runs from three to seven or eight per cent. 

The Acids. In all soils we find two essential 
acids, known scientifically as liumic and ulmic. The 
first is the acid in the humus, or vegetable and animal 



RELATION OF SOILS TO IRRIGATION. 23 

matter in the soil. As animal life is built by vegetable 
matter, it must eventually turn back to vegetable mat- 
ter. Ulmic acids are acids that exude from the roots of 
MMH> plants. We should remember that nitrogen is the 
costliest of all plant foods, and the most difficult to re- 
tain in the soil, and plants must have it, for it corrects 
this humic acid in the plant as well as in the soil. The 
ulmic acids are seldom in sufficient quantity to do harm. 
But the humic acids when shut off from the proportions 
of nitrogen or potash botli alkalies become too con- 
centrated, or the dead microbes become poisonous to 
plant life, as the great French chemist Pasteur would 
have it. Now humic acid has the same effect both in 
plant life and in the soil for all nature was torn off the 
same bolt. If the soil is very wet for two or three weeks 
:;nd is well filled with vegetable matter, although the 
plant is overgrown, it becomes sick just as much as a 
horse with colic. But keep the soil so the air can pen- 
etrate it and neutralize these acids, and the more of this 
vegetable matter the better and heavier the plant will 
fruit. One strong point in favor of irrigation is that it 
neutralizes these acids and brings them more surely un- 
der the control of the scientific cultivator, so that they 
may be more fully utilized in the structural growth of 
the plant. 

Color and Texture. The color of soil depends 
exclusively on its composition ; humus forming nearly a 
black soil, while sand gives a light yellow, and iron oxide 
produces a red color. The darker soils, other things 
being equal, have the highest absorptive power towards 
solar heat. -This is shown when muck is applied to the 
surface of snow in the spring. We have often found in 
the rich valleys of the Rocky Mountain region a dark, 
chocolate loam interspersed here and there by deposits 
of a lighter and more chalky nature, all being, however, 
extremely rich in gypsum and salts that are valuable in 



24 IRRIGATION" FARMING. 

the production of fruits, cereals and vegetables. Inves- 
tigation shows that one acre foot in depth of a fairly 
good agricultural soil contains four thousand pounds of 
phosphoric acid, eight thousand pounds of potash, six- 
teen thousand pounds of nitrogen and lime, magnesia, 
soda, chlorine, sulphur and silica, all of which are more 
fully rendered available in maturing plant life when irri- 
gation is brought into practice upon them. 

It has long been recognized by practical men, as 
well as by many of our scientific investigators, that the 
texture of the soil and the physical relation to moisture 
and heat have much to do with the distribution and de- 
velopment of crops. Years ago Johnson went so far :.s 
to say, in How Crops Feed, "It is a well-recognized 
fact that next to temperature the water supply is the 
most influential factor in the product of the crop. Poor 
soils give good crops in seasons of plentiful and well- 
distributed rain or when skillfully irrigated, but insuffi- 
cient moisture in the soil is an evil that no supplies of 
plant food can neutralize." 

Recent investigations point to the conclusion that 
the mechanical arrangement of the soil grains deter- 
mines its fertility more than the chemical properties it 
may possess. Experiments show that the greater the 
number of soil grains in a given space the greater the 
amount of air space, because the small grains, being 
light, arrange themselves more loosely than the larger or 
heavier ones. In a good wheat soil, when dry, there is 
at least fifty per cent of air space ; that is, in a cubic 
foot of soil one-half of the space is occupied by the soil 
and one-half by the air. But during the process of irri- 
gation the interstices become filled with water ; and by 
too copious or too prolonged an irrigation the soil be- 
comes saturated, which excludes the air from the soil 
air so necessary to plant growth. A porous subsoil re- 
moves the water of saturation and assists in preserving 



RELATION OF SOILS TO IRRIGATION. 25 

the moisture adhering to the particles of soil. The lat- 
ter is the most favorable to the growth of crops. In 
determining the condition of moisture in the soil in the 
practical application of water, it is only necessary to 
take out a handful of earth a few inches below the sur- 
face. If the earth is of sufficient moisture to ball in the 
hand irrigation at that time is not needed. This is a 
simple and inflexible rule. 

Temperature. The relation of soil to heat is 
largely dependent upon the relation of soil to moisture 
and the amount of moisture contained in the soil. It 
takes more heat to raise the temperature of a pound of 
water one degree than to raise the temperature of a 
pound of soil the same amount ; so that the more mois- 
ture there is in a soil the more material there is to be 
heated, and this added material is more difficult to heat 
than the substance of the soil itself. The temperature 
of the soil will depend also upon the amount of evapora- 
tion of the soil. It has been shown that from this cause 
alone the temperature of the sandy soil may be much 
cooler at midday than the temperature of the clay soil. 
If the soils had been dry this would have been just the 
reverse, as the substance of the clay is more difficult to 
heat than the substance of the sand. It has been shown 
that the mean temperature of a sandy soil is lower than 
that of an adjacent clay soil, while the sandy soil is 
drier than the clay soil. These are conditions of a lower 
temperature and a drier soil, which are used in green- 
house culture to force the ripening of a plant ; while 
the higher temperature and the greater moisture content 
of the clay soil are conditions used in greenhouse culture 
to produce a leafy development and to retard the ripen- 
ing of the plant. 

Gravity. The relation of soils to water resolves 
itself into two lines of investigation, the forces which 
move the water, and the conditions which determine the 



26 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

relative rate of flow. The forces which move the water 
within the soil are gravity and the tension or contract- 
ing power of the exposed water surface. The approxi- 
mate extent of the water surface can be calculated from 
the mechanical analysis of the soil. The surface tension 
and effect of manures and fertilizers on the surface ten- 
sion can be found by the ordinary method of the rise of 
liquids in capillary tubes, using as a solvent pure water, 
or extracts of the soil, representing as nearly as possible 
the ordinary soil moisture. The different fertilizing 
materials have a very marked effect on the pulling power 
of the water. The same class of substances may differ 
widely in their effect. Kainit, for instance, increases 
the surface tension of pure water, but nitrate of potash 
lowers it very considerably. 

Nutritive Dissemination. The absorption of 
nutritive matter by the soil is a phenomenon of universal 
occurrence and widest significance as influencing the 
conditions of plant growth. Its manifestation is amona: 
the most common processes of nature ; yet not till within 
the present half century was it fully recognized or appre- 
ciated in its bearings on plant nutrition. Solutions, as a 
result of our modern irrigating methods, are known to 
part with their solid constituents on passing through 
any considerable quantity of soil. They are thus dis- 
seminated more evenly throughout the topsoil, and are 
left there on deposit, as it were, to be drawn upon 
by the growing vegetation, and hence it is that irriga- 
tion improves the mechanical condition of soils and 
makes them the more readily subservient to the agricul- 
turist. Some authorities claim that soils which have 
been cropped until the soluble ingredients, organic ele- 
ments and humus, have been materially decreased, retain 
less water, and dry out more readily than when then- i> 
a larger amount of organic matter present in the soil. 
This depletion, however, may easily be obviated by the 



RELATION" OF SOILS TO IRRIGATION. 27 

scientific application of fertilizers, the growing of nitrog- 
enous plants, or by crop rotation. 

Capillary Action. In concluding our observa- 
tions on this important topic of soils the matter of cul- 
tivation must not be overlooked. The success of irriga- 
tion cannot be made complete without cultivation, and 
it is a fault too commonly observed among irrigators 
that they are inclined to depend too much upon irriga- 
tion and not nearly enough upon cultivation. The re- 
tention of the moisture when once supplied to the soil 
by moans of irrigation may be largely controlled by 
keeping the topsoil well pulverized so as to break up 
the capillary tubes, as shown in Figure 5, a being the 
surface, t> the capillary tubes, and c the subsoil. The 




FIG. 5. CAPILLARY TUBES OF SOIL. 

more recent scientists all agree that the soil is full of 
small tubes, through which the moisture from below 
finds its way to the surface and escapes. If these tubes 
can be closed the water will not evaporate so readily. 
This is done by loosening the topsoil, not by stirring 
it to such a depth as to injure the roots of the plant, 
but in a manner so as to break the tops of the tubes 
and throw a covering of loose soil over the ground, 
and at the same time destroy the robber weeds which 
not only use the moisture but take away plant food as 
well. This loose soil is a mulch a blanket which pre- 
vents loss of moisture and protects against the direct 
rays of the sun. There are of course certain kinds of 
cereal crops, such as wheat and oats, which by ordinary 



28 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

planting do not admit of cultivation, and these, from 
necessity, naturally require a larger quantity of water 
than do the cultivated or hoed crops. This subject of 
cultivation, as well as that pertaining to the fertilizing 
elements of irrigating waters, will be treated in succeed- 
ing chapters. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE TREATMENT OF ALKALI. 

To the average Western farmer alkali is the greatest 
bugbear with which he has to contend in his tillage oper- 
ations. The soils of the older Eastern States are not 
troubled in this way and are too often deficient in alka- 
line salts, for no soil is productive when these ingredi- 
ents are entirely lacking. Chemically considered, alkali 
is one of a class of caustic bases soda, potash, am- 
monia and lithia whose distinguishing peculiarities are 
solubility in alcohol and water, the power of uniting with 
oils and fats to form soap, neutralizing, reddening several 
yellows, and changing reddened litmus to blue. Fixed 
alkalies are potash and soda. Vegetable alkalies are known 
as alkaloids, and volatile alkalies are composed largely of 
ammonia, so called in distinction to fixed alkalies. The 
principal compounds or salts of the alkalies with which 
soil is impregnated, are Glauber's salts or sulphate of 
soda, washing soda or carbonate of soda, and common 
salt. In much smaller proportions are found sulphate 
of potash, phosphate of soda, nitrate of soda, saltpeter 
and even carbonate of ammonia. A majority of the last 
five are recognized fertilizers. The most injurious of 
th e three principal salts is the carbonate of soda. Its prop- 
erty of combining with vegetable mold, otherwise known 
as humus, and forming with it, when dry, a black com- 
pound, has given the name of black alkali lands to those 
of which it is the principal saline constituent. In time 
of drouth these can readily be distinguished by the dark 
rings left on the margin of the dried-up puddles. As 

29 



30 IRRIGATION FARMIXG. 

Glauber's salt and common salt do not possess this prop- 
erty, the soils impregnated with them remain chiefly 
white and are known as white alkali lands. 

Formation of Alkali Salts. Alkali is a natural 
element of the earth, the same as other minerals. Wln-n 
the rocks on the mountains pulverize and the sediments 
wash down on the plains, they bring the alkali along and 
deposit it in the soil. The same alkali salts are formed 
everywhere in the world, but in countries having abun- 
dant rainfall they currently wash through the soil into- 
natural drainage, while in regions where rainfall is defi- 
cient the scant moisture carries them down only a little 
way into the soil, from which they rise to the surface by 
the evaporation of water, and are thus accumulated at 
or near the top of the soil. It is right thero that nearly 
all the damage is done. The water in the depths of the 
soil is rarely strongly enough impregnated to hurt the 
roots of plants directly. The alkali is all through the 
soil, but is usually worse within a few inches of the sur- 
face. It rises to the surface with each wetting of the 
ground, in the same manner as a wick. Different wicks 
will raise water or coal oil to different hights, according 
as they are closely woven, or loose like candle wi eking. 
The close wick will raise the fluid higher in the end, but 
it will raise to the highest point more slowly than with 
the loose wicking. Just so in the soils. The close ones 
will raise the soil water from a greater depth than will 
the loose, sandy ones, but the latter will bring it up 
quicker to the full hight to which it can rise. 

Soils Containing Alkali. Alkali is always worse 
in clay soils than in sandy ones. This is because it rises 
to the surface from a greater depth. In the arid coun- 
try the rains often wet the soil only a few inches deep. 
and the alkali forms at the bottom of the moisture and 
makes hard cakes called hardpan, for hardpan is only a 
soil full of alkali packed hard. We rarely come in con- 



THE TREATMENT OF ALKALI. 31 

tact with alkali in sandy soil, and if it should prevail in 
such soils it would do no special harm. The action ot 
the weather for ages has caused it to leach out as rapidly 
as it formed. 

The vineyards of the Hacienda de los Hornos in 
Cohahuila, Mexico, are planted in stiff adohe soil which 
by the alkaline efflorescence has become as white as 
paper. The vineyard which has existed for several years 
is marvelously vigorous and there is no appearance that 
this condition will change. At Viesca, Cohahuila, the 
clay soil of the public square seems as if it were covered 
with snow. It produces, nevertheless, magnificent trees 
and rosebushes. From this it would seem that the rela- 
tion of alkali to soils is often misunderstood, and is con- 
sidered more injurious than it really is to the growth of 
vines, shrubbery and trees. 

Effects of Alkali. There are, however, many 
tender garden and field crops that are badly injured even 
by the white alkalies that we have seen under such 
peculiar conditions in Mexico. While the corrosive 
action exerted by the alkali salts upon the root crowns 
and upper roots of plants is the most common source of 
injury, there is another kind of damage which manifests 
itself, mainly in the heavier class of soils thus afflicted, 
when the soluble salts consist largely of carbonates of 
soda and potash. This is the great difficulty or almost 
impossibility of producing a condition of true tilth, in 
consequence of the now well-known tendency of alkaline 
solutions to maintain all true clay in the most impalpably . 
divided or tamped condition, that of well-worked pot- 
ter's clay, instead of the flocculent condition it assumes 
in a well-tilled soil. 

Waters Carrying Alkali. There are some classes 
of water which it is not advisable to use for purposes of 
irrigation. Thus, it was at one time proposed to use the 
waters of Kern and Tulare lakes in California for irri- 



32 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

gation, but careful investigation showed that these waters 
were strongly alkaline and that their continued use 
would deposit on the surface a sufficient coating of salt 
to render the lands sterile. The beds of these lakes are 
coated with a deep stratum of alkali. Similarly some 
artesian waters, and even the waters from some flowing 
streams, like the Salt creek in Southern Arizona, for in- 
stance, would result in the production of alkali. 

Alkali is chiefly the result of defective irrigation by 
permitting evaporation of sub-surface water, thereby leav- 
ing alkali on the surface ; but the largest proportion of 
damage is brought about by the rise of the sub-surface 
water level by lateral soaking from high-line canals, and 
the trouble is greatly aggravated and extended by the 
extravagant use of water. 

In irrigating light soils very small streams of water 
should be used ; otherwise, if the drainage is good there 
is danger of washing out the soluble fertilizing elements, 
leaving only the coarse mineral constituents, and render- 
ing the soil less fertile and productive. This precaution 
is especially necessary when using the clear pure water 
from springs or artesian wells, which carries ordinarily 
little of the rich fertilizing sediment characteristic of 
streams which flow for long distances through alluvial 
regions. In the employment of the latter, if well charged 
with sediment, the use of a large irrigation head is fre- 
quently advantageous, as it gives an opportunity for a 
uniform settlement of the sediment while the water is 
entering the soil. 

Remedies for Alkali. The remedies for the 
improvement of soils surcharged with the neutral alka- 
line salts, and whose texture is very compact and adhesive, 
are through tillage, the leaching out of the alkali by irri- 
gations combined with either natural or artificial drain- 
age, and frequent irrigation of the soil, assuring the inter- 
mixture of the surface deposit of alkali with the lower 



THE TREATMENT OF ALKALI. 33 

strata of soil, and thus diluting it and partially neutraliz- 
ing its injurious presence. As shown in the preceding 
chapter, cultivation also checks evaporation, and hence 
currently lessens the deposits of alkali on the surface. 
A loose, dry topsoil acts as a cushion of earth and air, 
intercepting the continuity of the upward passage of 
moisture along the lower plane of cultivation. 

The Flooding System. The most effective means 
of getting rid of ordinary white alkali is by washing it 
out of the land. This can bo accomplished by digging 
open ditches at a lower level than the surface of the land 
to be treated, and carrying them to the nearest natural 
outlet. Then by running water over the land into the 
drains without allowing it to stand long enough to soak 
into the ground and carry the dissolved alkali with it, 
most of the alkali that has accumulated at the surface 
will be removed. By repeating this treatment a few 
times land can be practically freed from alkali, unless it 
is exceptionally bad. Another plan is to use the blind 
ditcher, a machine much like the old ox plows used in 
Illinois and Iowa thirty years ago to make blind ditches 
along the prairie sloughs. This implement is calculated 
to run ditches from four to six inches lower than the 
plowed ground, every sixty or eighty feet across the tilled 
ground, to serve as drains. Another plan, and to our 
notion the most practicable one suggested, as well as the 
most expensive, is to underlay alkali land with vitrified 
sewer pipe. This will last a lifetime and will certainly 
get away with the alkali. 

Chemical Antidotes. When the quantity of 
alkali is small the evil effects resulting from its presence 
may be mitigated by the application to the soil of chemi- 
cal antidotes. A cheap antidote for most alkaline salts 
is lime. In some cases neutral calcareous marl will 
answer the purpose. When the alkali consists of car- 
bonates and borates, the best antidote is gypsum or land 
3 



34 IRRIGATION FARMIXC. 

p I aster. These materials should be sown broadcast over 
the surface and harrowed in to a moderate depth prior to 
irrigating. The usual amount of gypsum to apply is 
from 400 to 500 pounds to the acre. A California pro- 
fessor once became so inoculated with the gypsum doc- 
trine that he applied 3,600 pounds to the acre and was 
satisfied that the process proved to be altogether too 
expensive, although it removed 75 per cent of the alkdi 
by using the gypsum in connection with the flood in i: 
method. Gypsum is the only cure for the disastrous 
black alkali so fatal to plant life. 

Eradication by Vegetable Growth. It may 
often happen that all of the foregoing recommendations 
will prove ineffective, and to many cultivators they may 
be inaccessible. The most simple and natural remedy 
to absorb the alkaliferous elements in the soil, as has 
been found from the writer's own experience, is by grow- 
ing them out with certain neutralizing crops. If these 
do not entirely eradicate alkali in one season they should 
be continued year after year until the desired result is 
obtained, and during this period a rotation of the spe- 
cific crops may be resorted to if so desired. Sugar beets 
are no doubt the best things for this purpose, although any 
of the long-rooted crops will do nearly as well. Potatoes 
will not answer at all. Any of the sugar canes are ben- 
eficial, but the more gross feeders or the leguminous 
plants are better. Nothing is better probably than 
alfalfa, the great nitrogenous forage plant of the West, 
or its cousin esparcet, as these shade the ground, and 
their deep roots absorb nearly all the water and dissolved 
salts, while on the whole they reduce evaporation to the 
minimum. Other recommended crops are carrots, tur- 
nips, cabbages, hops, pea vines and sowed corn. In 
orchard planting such trees may be set as the peach, 
pear, (jiiince, apple and prune; and small fruits and the- 
grape but for the latter cuttings must not be used, and 



Till: TIIl.ATMEXT OF ALKALI. 35 

the topsoil must not be too strong with alkali. It is said 
that the olive will grow in the black alkali. 

Planting Trees in Alkali Ground. We are fre- 
quently asked if there is any way to plant trees on alkali 
soil so that they will live. As we have said before, alkali 
soil packs very closely, a great deal more so than soil 
not impregnated with this salt. If made wet it runs 
together like soft mortar. If a hole is dug in alkali soil 
the walls will be as smooth as it is possible to conceive 
earth to be, showing the disposition of this soil to pack 
too closely for young tree life, while the tree planter may 
lose his labor, not even saving the holes he dug. Our 
experience has been, after digging the hole for the 
tree the usual depth and the usual way, to take a quar- 
ter of a stick of giant powder and put it down a foot 
deeper in the bottom of the tree hole and blow up the 
1 sacked dirt by exploding the same ; and at the bottom 
of the hole put a layer of pure gypsum, place the tree 
roots on the gypsum, take clean chaff straw, dirt and 
gypsum, about eight pounds of the latter and half dirt, 
and half clean straw, and fill up the hole made for the 
tree. Do not in this case use the topsoil to fill the hole, 
as would be best to do if there was no alkali. When the 
tree is planted, take an old fruit can, put it in the fire 
to spring it apart, and then place it around the body of 
the tree above the crown roots and at the surface of the 
ground, the can to be so placed that the top may come 
even with the ground's surface, and should be filled with 
gypsum. The best kind of pear trees to plant in alkali 
soil are Beurre Hardy, Winter Nelis and Trout. The 
Bartlett does not do so well. 



CHAPTER V. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

In calculating on engaging in an irrigation enter- 
prise of any kind it is well to remember that we must 
first catch our rabbit before we can cook the stew. No 
one should attempt irrigation without first having 
determined the extent and continuity of the water sup- 
ply, and where a vast amount of money will be needful 
in carrying out the enterprise, as in the construction of 
large works, the services of a practical hydraulic engineer 
should be secured by all means, and his report should be 
rendered before entering upon the scheme. To get at 
the source of all water supply, we must accept the well- 
recognized scientific fact that the waters upon the earth 
and the clouds in the air are forever in reciprocal motion. 
The waters are lifted and ascend into the heavens, the 
clouds are drifted away over the land and discharge their 
moisture upon the land, and life is supported thereby. 
The amount of water which is taken out of the ocean by 
evaporation each year is very great. About thirty-five or 
thirty-six inches of water rises by evaporation from the 
surface of the earth annually. This rainfall on the entire 
earth would make a sheet as large as the surface of the 
earth and about three feet in depth. It would fill Lake 
Superior six times every year. 

Evaporation and Run-Off. When the rain falls 
upon the surface of the earth, a part is evaporated ;i:il 
carried away in the clouds, a part sinks into the soil t> 
be slowly evaporated, and a very large part is carried 
away by vegetation itself. Plants drink water and trans- 

36 



WATER SUPPLY. 37 

pire it into the air in very large quantities. That which 
is not evaporated from the earth's surface sooner or later, 
or transpired by plants, is gathered into the rivers ; 
we call that which ultimately flows out to sea the "run- 
off" water; and that which is evaporated and which 
drifts away in the air we call the " fly-off " water. These 
are two very common, simple terms. In calculating the 
requirements of modern irrigation, the best authorities 
hold that the water supply for a given acre should be 
sufficient to cover it twenty-one inches deep during the 
course of an irrigating season of 100 days. Some experts 
place the maximum as high as twenty-four inches, which 
is an estimate that is certainly liberal enough. 

The Surface Supply. We are safe in claiming 
four distinctive sources of water supply, which may in 
turn be divided into two classes. These are the streams, 
natural lakes and reservoirs, underflow or phreatic waters, 
and the deep subterranean or artesian basins. Of these 
the most practicable and available are the living waters of 
the natural streams. In the older irrigated states, where 
the legislators have framed laws for the appropriation of 
running waters, the control thereof is usually placed with 
an executive officer, generally called the State Engineer, 
who virtually has under his charge and supervision the 
control of the running waters. He gauges the streams, 
keeps a record of their flow, and doles out the canal rights 
in accordance with the statutes. First come first served, 
is the rule, and ditch charters which are granted by him 
are issued in consecutive numerical order, until the full 
carrying capacity of the stream is allotted, when further 
issuance of charters ceases. 

In the most successful irrigating water courses taken 
from the perennial streams, the headworks are almost 
invariably located well up on the river, to command suffi- 
cient level in order, if possible, to tap the stream where the 
water is clear and not laden with silt. By thus locating 



38 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

the intake it is usually possible, owing to the greater 
slope of the country, to reach the high lands or water- 
sheds of the area to be irrigated with the shortest possible 
diversion line, or that portion of the canal's course which 
is necessary to bring the line to the neighborhood of the 
irrigable lands. This is usually expensive and unpro- 
ductive of immediate benefit, as it does not directly irri- 
gate any land. The disadvantages of locating the canal 
headworks high up on the streams are serious. The 
country having an excessive fall requires rough hillside 
cuttings, perhaps in rock, and the line is, moreover,- 
intersected by hillside drainage, the crossing of which 
entails serious difficulties. But along the great Rocky 
Mountain foothills this objection has been entirely dis- 
regarded, and the English or high-line canal flows through 
the rock-ribbed South Platte canon a distance of over 
thirty miles before it reaches the open country, where 
the first water is delivered to patrons. When taking out 
a ditch in a flat country, as is often the case, the work 
is much more simple and not nearly so expensive. These 
conditions are often observed in the prairie districts at 
great distances from the mountains. 

The other classification of surface waters is that of 
the catchment area or reservoir order, and is a source of 
supply that may be termed artificial. Holdings of water 
by this plan may be obtained without resorting to the 
streams, by providing dams at suitable places for catch- 
ing the storm or run-off freshets coming from rainfall on 
a vast watershed lying back of and at an elevation above 
the reservoir site itself. In selecting such sites, how- 
ever, two or three cautions must be observed. In no 
case should the water be stored in main channels. Sup- 
pose there is a ravine running down, with side ravines 
cutting into it and with many laterals, and with a tract of 
ti\i or ten square miles above, which acts as a catchment 
for waters which run down in flood or storm times. 



W ATE It SUPPLY. 39 

Now, if we attempt to catch the waters in the main 
channel, the works must be strong enough to hold and 
control all the water which may ever flow there. Tlu 
great storms will only come once in a while, say five, ten, 
twenty, thirty or forty years apart, but when they come 
they will sweep everything before them, unless enormous 
works are constructed which are unnecessary to hold the 
waters of ordinary years. In taking water from streams 
build cheap diverting dams with a few sand bags or 
something of that sort, to keep the water back and turn 
it out into a side channel. It is the result of experience 
in Mexico, Spain and India that the storm waters, when 
stored, must be impounded in the lateral basins. 

Mud and Silt in Reservoirs. There is another 
difficulty about the storage of storm waters, which can be 
avoided by the plan suggested. Storm waters are always 
more or less impregnated with mud, and if these roily 
waters are stored in the main channels, the reservoirs will 
soon fill up and destroy the catchment by the mud and silt, 
brought down from above, accumulating in the bed'; but 
if the water is diverted into a lateral or supply channel, 
the flow can be checked, by methods which are well 
known, so as to deposit the mud and silt largely, and 
carry the purer waters around into the reservoir. These 
conditions must be carefully observed if success is to be 
attained in the storage of storm waters. Experience 
shows that it is more economic, and that a greater area 
of the world is irrigated by the storage of storm waters 
than is irrigated by well waters. Storm waters are very 
rich, carrying with them many elements of fertilization, 
and are very valuable. 

Underflow, Phreatic and Artesian. These are 
iill definitions of subterranean waters. Underflow waters 
may consist of either the phreatic those waters under- 
neath that have come from the surface or the artesian, 
whi"h are almost invariably deep-founded, and owe their 



40 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

depth to the earth's stratifications, through which thev 
have percolated from higher sources, either open or hid- 
den, and generally in either case at great distances from 
the artesian channel proper. These waters are neces- 
sarily not nearly so available as the more readily attained 
surface supplies, and are to be developed only in urgent 
cases and in the places where a surface supply is not 
accessible. Underflow waters are sometimes brought to 
the surface by the gravity process. This is possible in 
the sandy beds of many Western streams a greater por- 
tion of the year. Phreatic waters usually abound within 
100 feet of the surface and are raised chiefly by pumps, 
while the deep artesians have an invisible power, which 
forces the water to the top in ever-flowing streams. 
Later chapters in this work will bear upon these subter- 
ranean waters more fully. 

Tunneling for Water. In California where fruit 
crops form the main agricultural pursuits, the rather 
expensive plan of tunneling the high mountains for 
water supply has been successfully carried out in many 
places. The work has been done mostly by organ- 
ized companies with plenty of capital, the object being 
to make salable the adjacent tracts of foothill land-. 
which for several reasons are best adapted to fruit cul- 
ture. These tunnels are opened by means of diamond 
drills operated with the power of compressed uir sup- 
plied by an air pump, at the opening of the drift. As a 
rule the tunnels are less than 1000 feet in length, and arc 
run in such a way as to tap the various shelving stratifi- 
cations of formation, which carry more or less quantities 
of pure water seeking its level from the higher mountains. 
The plan is practicable in supplying a satisfactory head of 
water to fill an ordinary ditch, but before such a heavy 
undertaking is commenced the services of a geologist or 
hydraulic engineer should be called to determine the 
nature of the mountain's interior, especially as to the 



WATER SUPPLY 41 

:: mount of water it may contain. There is no use of 
going to the expense of running an adit until the hidden 
water supply is fairly well approximated. All mountains 
do not contain water, and this fact is very essential in 
undertaking such an enterprise as described. 

Water Witchery. Ever since the writer can 
remember he has been conversant with the methods <<f 
certain men who claim to possess the occult power of 
locating a stratum or underflow of water by means of a 
forked stick, held in such a way that it is expected to 
dip at a point over the underlying waters as the operator 
passes along on the surface. This is called "water witch- 
ery," and is at best a very problematical practice, scarcely 
worth the time that one might devote to it, and certainly 
not always worth the fees that may be charged. The 
way to put a water locator of this sort to a practical test 
is to place stakes at the points where his forked willow 
may show the downward tendency, indicative, as he will 
sav, of the water underneath. Let several stakes be 
driven at different points. Then blindfold the water 
prospector, lead him around in a circle several times, and 
if his magic wand will repeat the dipping actions as 
before, and the two sets of stakes agree, some dependence 
may then be placed in the operation, but the test will be 
more apt to fail and the deception will at once be apparent. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 

Water is king, and the most important adjunct to 
the greater requirements of irrigation is a good canal 
system. The gravity supply of water is by all odds the 
best that can be employed, and the farmer who has a 
good ditch in perfect working order may consider that 
he has a fortune lying at his threshold. In laying out a 
system of ditches for a farm, use care and time. Think 
it over well, and it may be economy to employ a hydrau- 
lic engineer to run levels and determine grades. No 
large canal system should be undertaken without con- 
sulting an expert engineer. Each farm to a certain ex- 
tent requires a ditch system adapted to its peculiar to- 
pography, soil and crops. See to it that the water can 
get oil the land as well as on it. Remember at all times 
that drainage is quite as necessary to successful irrigat ion 
as the water supply itself. The matter of grade for a 
ditch is one which depends so much upon circumstances 
as almost to preclude rules. It is safe, however, to make 
the grades as light as possible to avoid "silting up" or 
settling. Cutting may be called perpetual motion, for 
if once begun it seems never to stop. The ditch gradu- 
ally irets lower and lower until the water cannot be got 
out of it at all and it must either be abandoned or 
have falls built in it to keep the flow near the surface. 
As far as possible keep the grade uniform, as changing 
the grade tends to cause both cutting and silting. A 
ditch for irrigation on a farm should alwa\- 1>- much 
larirer than the actual demands require. In Spain their 

42 



CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 



43 



hundreds of years' experience has taught them to make 
their ditches very large. They could thus irrigate their 
lands quickly and be done with it. The ditches were far 
less likely to break and could" be easily crossed by wagons, 
or farm implements. During sudden showers they 
could carry off the drainage water from immediately 
above them and thus avoid many a washout. 

Laying Out. The laying out of ditches is the 
province of the engineer or surveyor, although the more 
intelligent farmers may do much of their own work and 




FIG. 6. THE JACKSON LEVEL. 

thus save considerable expense. Something of a knowl- 
edge of leveling must be had in order to do the work, 
but sufficient may soon be acquired to permit of much 
home work being done. Every man who has much 
ditch building to do should have a cheap grade level and 
target, which should not exceed $25 in cost, while a very 
good outfit can be bought for 12. The writer has used 
the Jackson very satisfactorily. This instrument is 
shown in Figure 6, while the target or flag is given in 
Figure 7. 



4* IRRIGATION FARMING. 

If but little work is to be done a carpenter's com- 
mon spirit level fastened onto a sixteen-foot strip of 
board will answer very well. Instructions for running 
grades are sent with each instrument. The first opera- 
tion is to begin at the selected head and take 
a series of long sight levels down the course of 
the river to ascertain its approximate fall. 
These levels should be taken with two rods to 
save time, the locator making a sketch and 
estimating roughly his distance at the some 
time. Having gone down the river far enough 
to satisfy himself as to its fall, he turns at 
right angles as nearly as may be and continues 
to level hill wards across the valley until he 
records the elevation assumed as the head of 
the works. He will now be able to fix the loca- 
tion of any chosen grade upon the line of his 
cross levels according to his estimated dis- 
tance, and is therefore also in a position to es- 
timate approximately the rate of his grade. 
He knows from his sketch and estimated dis- 
tance what area of the valley is behind him on 
the upstream side bounded by the river, by the 
canal and by the line of his cross levels. 

The next operation is to turn again at 
right angle and continue leveling down the 
valley more or less upon the line of the canal, 
still approximating the distance and going up 
or down if he thinks it worth while or necessary 
to rectify position from time to time according 
TARGET, to the distance estimated and the gradr as- 
sumed. Having gone as far as it is intended to build 
the canal, he should turn at right angles across the val- 
ley back to the river and take his last line of levels. 
Throughout the operations described as many good 
bench marks as possible should be established for future 



CANAL roxsTIIt'CTIOE'. 45 

reference. The taking of these levels being done, he 
should finish his track survey of the river bank up the 
stream to the point at which his first line of cross levels 
originated. Having established the objective point in 
this way, the matter of running the transit to the target 
and placing the grade stakes is very simple, and any 
schoolboy ought to be able to locate the grade line 
correctly. 

Ditching Methods. With regard to excavation 
and cost, the smaller ditches may be constructed by hand 
shoveling, by plowing and by scraping, or by plowing 
with a large double-mold-board plow ; the larger ditches 
by plowing and scraping, or by grading or ditching ma- 
chines. Hand work is of course most expensive but it 
will be necessary in some places. Some plowed ditches 
are the cheapest, but they are only temporary and in the 
end more expensive. Scrapers will cover the greatest 
range of work and will fairly represent the average cost. 
The modern thing in scrapers is the wheeled affair. 
Work done with ditching machines is very satisfactory 
and far cheaper than any other work. Not every farmer 
can afford to buy a machine to do his own work alone, 
but when farmers become associated in the putting down 
of wells and the construction of reservoirs and ditches, 
then it will pay to buy machines, for on a large piece of 
work they will soon pay their cost. 

Cost o.f Construction. Classifying irrigating 
canals and ditches according to their widths, it has been 
found that for those averaging less than five feet in 
width the expense of construction including headworks, 
Humes, etc, is $481 a mile ; for those five feet in width 
and under ten feet, $1628 a mile, and for those ten feet 
or more in width $5603 a mile. The greater number of 
the irrigating systems of the country have been con- 
structed under such conditions that the owners cannot 
give even an approximate estimate as to what they really 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



cost. Many of them have been built by the efforts of a 
few farmers acting originally in partnership, and have 
been enlarged from year to year as more land was 
brought under cultivation and population increased. 
Farmers as a rule do not keep account of the amount 
ot labor or money expended on such works, and in 
cases where they own the irrigating ditches they do 
not take into consideration the labor expended upon 
the ditches at times when the farm work is not 
pressing. When contractors figure on the cost of 
building a canal exclusive of the rock work they usually 
calculate the expense of excavating at from ten to fifteen 
cents a cubic yard of earth removed. The actual 
cost of this work has of later years been reduced, by 
means of the big grading machines, to the minimum 
of three or four cents a cubic yard. In arriving at the 
cost of canal construction in various parts of the West, 
the government officials have compiled the following 
tabulated computation : 

AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATING CANALS 
AND DITCHES. 



STATES 
AND TERRITORIES. 


Under 5 feet 
in width. 


5 to 10 feet in 
width. 


10 feet .m id 
over in wi.lili. 


General average. .. 


$481 


$1,C28 


$5.603 


Ari/ona 
California. 


471 
MB 


5,967 


5J274 
15 51 1 


Colorado 


380 


1 1">1 


-, )-,;< 


Idaho 


205 


gl 


1 '{'(I 


Mon tana 


325 


800 


" " Ml 


\t-\ ;ila 


200 


1 150 




\r\V Me v jco 


310 


Ml 


li ('.I'll 


( )ret*on 


>6o 


1 MI io 


1 300 


I'tali 


4<i3 


1 if") 


; n~-' 


\\ u^liinyton 


285 


1,280 
B37 


2,671 

'! ^ I 


SnMmmid region 


303 


117 


1 .ss4 



Form and Capacity. To get the greatest possi- 
ble velocity the ditch should be in the form of half a 
pipe or a pipe split in half lengthwise. This would re- 
quire the width of the ditch at the top to be exactly 
twice its depth in the center. In other words, it would 



CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 4? 

be as wide at the top as the length of the diann-u-r 
of the pipe, and one-half diameter deep from the 
irnUT to any point of the sides or bottom. A ditch 
of this form offers less friction surface in proportion 
to its cross sectional area than any other form and 
also keeps the depth of the water in the ditch nearly 
half its width. The diameter of a pipe we will say 
is four feet. Its circumference would be therefore 
;>. U1G multiplied by four, equal to 12.5664 feet ; when 
it is halved lengthwise, half the circumference would 
equal 6.2832 feet. 

To get the greatest velocity and quantity of water 
to flow in a rectangular canal it should be of such form 
as to cause the water in it to flow exactly one-half as 
deep as wide, because the velocity of flow in such a canal 
is proportional to the square root of the hydraulic mean 
depth, and the hydraulic mean depth is at its maximum 
when the breadth of the water is just twice its depth. 
Fanning says that the variation of velocity, with varying 
depth, is nearly as the variation of the square root of 
the hydraulic mean depth. 

Grades and Slopes. The grade is one of the im- 
portant things to be considered in canal construction. 
Ditches running from twenty to over one hundred miles 
have widths from twenty to eighty feet, some being 
built with and some without bermes the grades ranging 
from one foot to seven feet a mile. The steeper grades 
are not common and are for short distances only. The 
average grades for main ditches, carrying from two to 
six feet of water, are from one and one-half to two and 
three-fourths feet a mile. Such low grades will answer 
only for the larger ditches carrying large volumes of 
water, and where the ratio of volume to resistance or 
friction on the sides is large. In smaller distributing 
ditches, where the volume is smaller and the resistance 
proportionately much greater, a steeper grade must be 



48 



IRRIGATION FABMUT0. 



allowed. The location of the well or reservoir on or 
near the highest point, fixes- the point of radiation of 
the ditches, their lines being located according to the 
grades secured and the lay of the land to be served. The 
aim will always be to keep the water up as high as possi- 
ble, for it is useless to sacrifice grade or make a ditch 
run at a greater grade than is necessary. It is an easy 




FIG. 8. DROP AND REDUCTION 1'.<>\. 



tiling to 



matter to let the water down but a difficult 
raise it. 

A method for dropping the grade of a ditch wlirn 
the pitch becomes too great is shown in Figure 8. This 
is a drop box for the fall and is often made a reduction 
box as well. It is useful in places where the water .-uj- 
ply is lessened by serving customers farther up the line, 
or when the volume of water becomes less from any other 



50 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

cause. Another plan is the use of the inclined flume. 
By keeping the water grades up, a broader area is 
kept within the range of service. Grades of from two 
to five feet a mile will be ample to secure good delivery 
from the smaller main ditches,, while the laterals will 
require steeper grades, which in many cases may be con- 
fined to the approximate level of the field, except on 
hillsides or quite abrupt slopes, in which case the grades 
will be carried around the slope as contours. 

As to side slopes, the usual ratio is one to one in 
cuts of common material, with sometimes one-half to 
one in harder material and one-fourth to one in rock. 
For outside slopes of embankments the usual ratio is 
one and one-half to one, and for inside slopes of banks 
usually two to one, except in crossing ravines with the 
bank, when the inner slope may be two and one-half or 
three to one, owing to the depth of bank below the grade 
line. In a flat country where the bottom of the canal is 
kept as near the natural surface as possible, and embank- 
ments are built on both sides, the side slopes may be as 
flat as three to one from the bottom of the cut to the 
top of the bank without any berme. Many fair-sized 
canals even up to twelve or sixteen feet wide, and carry- 
ing three or four feet of water, have been made without 
any berme and seem to have stood well. 

Curves and Friction. The more earth surface 
and the greater number of bends the water comes in con- 
tact with in flowing in a ditch, the greater the friction 
will be and the less the velocity and quantity of water. 
Therefore to obtain the greatest velocity and quantity of 
water the ditch should be as straight as possible. If 
ix-nds are necessary they should not be abrupt, but as 
-r.i'lual as possible. A very good example of an easy 
curve is shown in Figure 9. 

For a steady flow the grade should be the same the 
L-utirc length of the ditch, or as nearly so as circumstan- 



(.ANAL CONSTRUCTION. 



51 



ces will permit. The sides and bottom should be regu- 
lar and smooth, and clear of stones, weeds, etc. The 
weak spot in every canal is most apt to be found at 
the curves and angles, and these must be protected. 
Where, as is the case in some sections, there is plenty 
of stone, the water line at the curves may be partially 
protected by riprapping, but this involves a large 
amount of labor. Where there are no stones other 
means must be used. Willows are oftentimes planted to 
give bank protection. Where gravel may be had a shore 




FIG. 10. CANAL ON A HILLSIDE. 



line may be covered with it, thus forming a natural 
water-break. In some cases it may be best to construct 
a breakwater of plank sharpened and driven into the 



52 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

bank, or laid to posts set in the bank. The steeper the 
bank the greater, of course, will be the displacement of 
the earth by water's action. In Figure 10 is seen a 
canal on a hillside. 

Headgates. The best mechanical effort in build- 
ing a canal should be expended on the headgate. This 
should be located within a few hundred feet of the in- 




FIG. 11. HEADGATE OF A CANAL. 



take at the river with a fore bay of only moderate grade 
intervening. The old-fashioned headgates were built of 
lumber and were not usually sufficient to withstand the 
tearing force of freshets in the stream. Iron gates came 
later and were fairly successful in withstanding the 
attacks of storms, but they often caused more seriu< 
damage to the lower bank of the fore bay and oftentimes 
led to its entire destruction. The gate should be 



CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 53 

placed at a point convenient to discharge water back to 
the river through the waste and sand gates. The use of 
piling is necessary in soft ground, although some builders 
continue to put in mudsills and depend upon stone an- 
chorage to keep the structure in place. The writer 
would advise wings to be put in on each side of the 
gates, where there is no rock in place, and these wings 
should extend in either direction and especially on the 
lower side, if the surface of the land be flat for a distance 
of from fifty to one hundred feet. 

We have of ten seen headworks left standing 'alone 
in the middle of a torrent of water after a heavy storm, 
and have noted that the damage of the washout might 
have been averted had wings of piling or masonry been 
put in. The superstructure should be built of heavy 
timber and provided with a windlass. It is a good plan 
for large canals to have the gates arranged in stalls, each 
working independent of the other. A gate of modern 
construction is shown in Figure 11, the lower end in view 
wit h water passing through. It fortunately is anchored in 
rock walls and is not supposed to wash out, nor does it 
need the protection of wing pilings. 

In Scott's Bluff county, Nebraska, the Nine Mile 
canal has its headgate 900 feet below the intake, which 
is at a seepage basin formed by damming up a channel 
in a river at the side of an island. The dam is located 
above the mouth of the canal, while the channel or basin 
is left open with the idea that the backwater from the 
river will flow in at the lower end of the island, and in 
this way there will be but little sand with which to con- 
tend. The plan has many features to recommend it, but 
it could be adopted only in the situations favorably lo- 
cated as to the island and with a moderate fall of the 
stream at the desired point. 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



Sand Gates. Quite as essential as the main gate 
itself is the sand gate of a canal, by means of which silt, 




FIG. 12. TOP SECTIONAL VIEW OF LAND'S SAND GATE. 

sand or detritus may be caught and drawn off at the 
head works without flowing into and filling up the bot- 




FIG. 13. SIDE VIEW OF SAND GATE. 

torn of the canal proper. Many devices have been in- 
vented in the hope of diverting sand from a ditch, and 
I 



i.i.;.| 



FIG. 14. FRONT VIEW OF BAND OATB. 

the best of these no doubt is Gordon Land's sand gate, 
sectional plans of which are presented in Figures 12, 13 
and 14. 



CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 55 

In the Land Invention, the flume contains both 
the headgates occupying the full width, and the sand 
gates, which are on the lower side of the canal. There 
are two floors above the headgates, and the flume is set 
so that the upper floor is on the proper grade of the 
canal. Just at the flume and for a short distance above, 
the bottom of the canal is about two feet below the 
grade. The sand gates, which may vary in number ac- 
cording to the width of the canal, are on the lower side, 
and each of these gates is connected with the canal by a 
separate channel until it reaches the side nearest to the 
discharge. These channels are curved and properly 
fitted.' Each one of these forms a separate funnel, and 
the gates are kept constantly raised because, as in the case 
of nearly all canals, the natural stream under riparian 
rights is entitled to the flow of some of its full tide at 
least. The sand is pulled from the far side of the canal, 
which is the chief advantage. The planks forming the 
sand funnels are set edgewise and thus support the floor 
of the main water course above. 

Waste Gates. The safety valve of a canal is its 
waste gate, and there are many styles in use. That 
which we will describe herewith is known as Nelson's 
automatic waste gate and is described as follows, as well 
as shown by sectional drawing Figure 15. 

The gate (1) is built of two-inch plank securely bolted 
to four gate standards 2x8 inches and of length equal to 
the depth of the canal for which it may be designed, and 
as many gates each three to four feet wide may be placed 
in the principal frame, termed wasteway, as the magni- 
tude of the anticipated flood water may require. The 
<rate is hung on substantial hinges at the top to a hori- 
zontal beam 4x12 inches, as shown in the figure. Near 
the bottom the gate is supported by two levers (2), 
which are four inches square, placed between the gate 
standard, through which a round bolt is placed, as shown 



50 



IRRIGATION FARMIXG. 



in plan. Both gate standards and the ends of levers are 
lined with cast plates to prevent the bolts from being 
pressed into the wood, to allow the gate to move with 
the least possible friction. The opposite ends of the 
levers (2) join in a single lever (3), likewise with a bolt 
joint and cut plates. These levers (3) are connected with 
two levers (4) by being placed upon the same axle, and 
also connected with a triangular brace (5). 

At the end and between the top levers (4) is suspended 
upon an axle a weight box (W), in which is placed rocks 
or other heavy material to counterpoise the pressure of 




FIG. 15. AUTOMATIC \VASTK li.VTE. 

water in the canal against the surface of the gate. AVhen 
the water pressure becomes greater than the counterpoise, 
by reason of increased depth of water in the canal, the 
gate swings open in an outward direction from the 
canal, and levers 3 and 4 are forced back till the weight 
box goes past the center or perpendicular over the main 
axle just enough so as to nearly counterbalance the 
weight of the gate and levers 1 and 2, so that the gate is 
floating loose on the surface of the freely escjipinir water 
with nothing to obstruct it, and no opportunity for drift 



CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 57 

or silt to lodge. The gate is turned open to its full capac- 
ity and stands nearly at right angles to its position when 
shut. As soon as the flood has receded and the water in 
the canal has lowered to its normal stage, the gate low- 
ers accordingly, when the weight is moved forward a'.id 
receives its former power and closes the gate. 

The forces acting through the system of levers 
as arranged, and holding the gate shut when the water 
in the canal is at normal hight, or not exceeding the 
hight to which the gate has been adjusted, are reduced 
in the same proportion as the water pressure against the 
gate is reduced when opened. Between each set of gates 
is placed a beam or cap lengthwise of the waste way, 
supported on posts to which are fastened the boxings 
in which the main axle revolves. This axle is made 
from timber six inches square, banded at each end, and 
also has a steel or iron rod one and one-fourth inches 
in diameter passing through the center, with ends pro- 
jecting and resting in the boxing. The levers 3 and 4 
are bolted to the main axle. Between levers 4 is placed 
and fastened with bolts a set of X braces to prevent the 
levers from becoming displaced by wind or other causes, 
thus making the structure firm and rigid. 

Ditch Outlets. The outlets or culverts through 
the canal banks to the main lateral should be set before 
the bank is built and with reference to the supply lat- 
erals. The size of the outlet will be governed by the 
amount of water to be delivered to the lateral. The out- 
lets may be made of plank or vitrified sewer pipe, the 
latter being especially good but in most cases not so 
readily obtainable. The earth should be well tamped 
about the box or pipe in order to make a water-tight 
joint. 

Regarding gates, these should bo set at the inner 
end of the outlets, and a plank wall built from the top of 
the bank leading out over the water to a point over the 



58 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



gate, in order that the gate may be lifted. In construc- 
tion the gate is most simple, any carpenter or farmer 
being able to build one. A tight- 
fitting slide over the end of the 
box or pipe outlet is all that is 
necessary to shut off the water. 
The gate may be raised or low- 
ered by a stick of 2x4 bolted to 
the front of the gate and leading 
up through slides or guide holes 
in the end of the walk. Simple 
means may be provided for fas- 
tening the gate either up or down. 
The pressure of the water against 
the gate will keep it in position 
and preserve a tight joint if the 
sliding surfaces have been prop- 
erly dressed or surfaced. Grooves 
should be provided in the sliding 
supports so as to make sure that 
the gate will return to its seat 
when it is desired to lower it. 
Modifications of detail are many 
and will suggest themselves to 
any one as the conditions of the 
work or the setting may require. 
One of these is a cast-iron lift 
gate working in an iron frame 
with grooves, as seen in Fig- 
ure 16. 

Evaporation and Seepage. 
Evaporation is greatest during warm or windy 
v.-c:ither, greater in shallow than in dei-p water ami 
greater in running than in still water. The evaporation 
of a canal dim MI: June, July and. August will rarely 
exceed three to four inches a day. Durin/r theremain- 




FIO. 16. IRON* Ol'TLKT GATE. 



CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 59 

ing mouths the average will be about one inch, making 
for the year from three to five feet of loss by evaporation. 
To the loss in this must bo added the loss by seepage or 
filtration either into the earth or through the banks. 
The amount of seepage through the banks will depend 
not only upon the character of the soil of which they are 
made but also upon the solidity with which they are 
thrown up. So with seepage into the earth. If the soil 
is of soft loam, sand or gravel the percentage of loss will 
be greater than if the subsoil be of clay or hardpan. 
Careful measurements made in a number of cases show 
that with canals having a good grade and not more than 
ten to fifteen miles in length, nearly fifty per cent of the 
water diverted into them at the head is lost before the 
point of distribution is reached. The matter of filtra- 
tion or seepage will be dwelt upon more fully later 
on in this work, as it bears upon irrigation systems 
other than that of canals. 

Cementing Canals. Seepage loss maybe almost 
obviated by cementing the bottoms and sides of canals,and 
in very sandy or gravelly soils this measure becomes ab- 
solutely imperative. At first most of this work was done 
by lining the surface with stones, usually cobbles or 
small bowlders with faces roughly smoothed, and then 
plastering cement over them and filling all the in- 
terstices. This has been done with very many large 
canals in the southern part of California, arid as may be 
imagined, it is a very expensive process, especially when 
the canals are very long and remote from the sources of 
supply of the stone needed. In California, however, where 
some of the most expensive stone and cement lining has 
been done in the past, it has been found that just as good 
work can be done and effective results obtained without 
the use of stone and with only a thin crust of cement. The 
method followed is first to completely saturate the bot- 
tom and sides of the canal, which settles the earth thor- 



60 IRRIGATION' FARMING. 

oughly in place, and then the coating of Portland or hy- 
draulic cement is put on with a thickness of three-quar- 
ters of an inch. It has been- found that this layer is 
durable and abundantly able to withstand all the strain 
that will be put upon it. The cement is mixed with 
clean sand in the proportion of one barrel of the former 
to four barrels of the latter. For a canal carrying 3500 
cubic inches of water, with a bottom eight feet wide and 
sides four feet high, it requires 2000 barrels of cement 
for seven miles of length. The work of laying the ce- 
ment is done very rapidly and thoroughly. Along the 
edge of the canal a small pipe is laid, through which a 
steam pump forces the water which is used in keeping 
the earth wet and in mixing the mortar. At regular in- 
tervals are placed piles of sand and barrels of cement. A 
mixing box on wheels with a trough running down into 
the canal is run on the top of the bunk, and the plasterers 
take from this and cement the sides. This is moved 
along as fast as needed, thus saving the use of wheel- 
barrows. Following comes another mixing box on 
wheels in the bottom of the canal and from this the 
mortar is taken to cement the bottom. The work should 
be allowed to stand for a time so as to thoroughly dry 
before water is turned in. 

Building the Laterals. In constructing the 
supply laterals leading from tho main, canal to the farm, 
the walls should.be built up so that the bottom of the 
lateral may be higher than the surface of the ground. 
This is vital to the economic use of water. The laterals can 
be constructed in the loose soil on the farm for the r< 
that the water is desired to soak into the ground. The 
laterals may be changed every time water is put on the 
land, for the reason that always as soon as possible aft'-r 
irrigating, the ground should be cultivated, thus obi iter- 
ating the lateral and preventing the soil from baking. 
There is nothing so good in the long run for building 



CAXAL COXSTKUCTIOX. 01 

ditch laterals as the common plow and scraper. Make 
the ditch bottom as wide as the scraper even for the small 
laterals, if they are to be permanent. The first plowing 
should be at least three times as wide as the finished 
ditch, so the earth may be thoroughly broken up and no 
smooth or grass-covered surface left for the bank to rest 
upon. On a sidehill the plowing should extend well 
down the lower side. Under an extensive canal system 
a water consumer's land may lie a mile or two distant 
from the main ditch. In a case of this kind the laterals 
must be of a permanent character. This work may re- 
quire as much skill and judgment as the construction of 
the canal itself, and should be well done. When the 
ditch is completed let a very little water in for the first 
few days and shut it off every afternoon. The high em- 
bankments will settle and are reasonably sure to crack, 
and the earth must then be tamped into the cracks. 
The ends of flumes will need tamping and puddling. 
The coarse gravel in the banks will leak like a sieve and 
will require many a shovelful of fine earth to fill up the 
interstices. In a few weeks, however, all will be settled 
in place. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RESERVOIRS AXD POXI>S. 

The fortunate irrigator who has a reservoir of his 
own has his water supply constantly on tap the reser- 
voir may also appropriately be called the farmer's savings 
bank. An irrigation system depending upon storage, 
when the storage works are judiciously constructed, is 
the most reliable of all. The reservoirs can hold the 
waters of a wet year for use in a dry one, and in the pos- 
sible sequence of several dry years the smaller stored 
supply gives several months' warning to irrigators, so 
that water can be husbanded and made to perform a 
larger duty than usual in order to tide over a period of 
scarcity. 

The problem of water storage for irrigation is a very 
different one from that for the domestic supply of a city. 
In the first place it is important that water for domestic 
use be as nearly as possible free from mud and organic 
impurities, while for irrigation such impurities are not 
only no objection to the water but often materially add 
to its value by enriching the soil to which it is applied. 
Waters held in reservoirs and intended for irrigation pur- 
poses are often rendered much warmer ^than the flowing- 
waters of streams, and are therefore more beneficial to 
plant growth when drawn off and applied. The reser- 
voirs must also be credited with having a salutary effect 
on the atmosphere of the arid region, and countless num- 
bers of them scattered here and there over the lands 
would greatly increase the humidity, and brin^ about a 
marked meteorological change for the better. In Western 

62 



RESERVOIRS AND PONDS. 

Kansas, for instance, a small fraction of the precipitation 
during the year would make a lake one -fourth of u mile 
square and five feet deep for every section of land. This 
could be utilized easily for irrigation. 

A grand system of reservoirs in Arid America would 
greatly reduce the dangers of floods and rendei immunity 
from the horrors of deluge that every year come to the 
settlers along the lower Mississippi. The ancients under- 
stood this principle, for, in order to remedy the incon- 
venience of the torrential period, when the country was 
flooded, and of the subsequent drouth for five months, 
the Romans covered their African provinces with a net- 
work of hydraulic structures. From the summit of the 
mountains to the sea all the rains that fell were seized 
upon, led here and there in channels and distributed 
over the fields. In the smallest mountain ravines stone 
dams were built to retain water. In the valleys they 
arrested its progress downstream. By this means the 
Romans prevented great floods descending the mountains 
at times of heavy rains, and retained a larger part of the 
precipitation in the higher reservoirs until such time as 
the water thus preserved was needed. At the entrance 
to each large valley was a system of works which assured 
not only the watering of that immediate region but con- 
ducted flowing streams through many channels, so that 
the surrounding earth could absorb what was required. 
At the entrance of each large stream on a plain a dam 
was built, generally to retain the waters and prevent 
their sudden invasion of the plain before they were 
required. 

Location of Reservoirs. In the selection of 
reservoir sites regard must be had to several considera- 
tions the area and character of land to be irrigated and 
its distance from the proposed reservoir ; the area of the 
watershed, the drainage from which is to fill it ; and both 
the maximum and minimum annual rainfall of the water 



64 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

shed. If the quantity and value of the land to be watered 
and the capacity of the reservoir are great as compuivu 
with the available water to be stored, it may be ad visi- 
ble to build a reservoir of sufficient capacity to contain 
much more than the minimum annual run-off, so that 
the discharge of wet years may be saved for use in time 
of drouth. If storage reservoirs are to be constructed a 
Lrivat degree of engineering skill is required. The charac- 
ter of the construction of the dam will differ in every 
case with the nature of the foundation and the availa- 
bility of structural material. Some of the greatest reser- 
voir dams ever built have been constructed for purely 
irrigation purposes and have required more skill in their 
design than have any built for city water supply or other 
hydraulic uses. The basin selected must be such as will 
store the greatest amount of water w r ith the greatest 
economy of construction. It is manifest that inasmuch 
as reservoirs cannot be excavated within reasonable con- 
ditions of cost, they must be natural basins. -In many 
cases these will be existing lakes, and while many such 
will require dams at their outlets in order to regulate by 
gates the outflow of the water, there are some which can 
be controlled by tapping below the level of the natural 
discharge. Such reservoirs will be most economical as 
outlets, only they will have to be constructed and guarded 
by bulkheads, and the natural evaporation surface will not 
be enlarged. 

Reservoir sites may be divided into two great classes : 
Natural lakes or depressions, and reservoir sites on 
drainage lines. Such sites have two important adyan- 

the dams are not endangered by the enormous 
iloods that are bound to occur on streams, and an oppor- 
tunity is afforded for disposing of the rock and silt from 
the storm waters stored before they reach the iVMT\<>ir-. 

In tin- location of small individual ponds no great 
engineering skill is required and the construction is at 



KESERVOIUS AXD PONDS. G5 

a very simple and easy task, especially where only 
nil earth excavation is required, on flat land or in a 
draw. If a place can be found from which the water 
will naturally run in several directions, all the better, 
because more land may then be reached at less cost. 
Where there is a good clay subsoil, not porous, and the 
soil above has in it considerable admixture of clay, a 
first-class reservoir may be constructed out of the soil. 

In treating the construction of reservoirs we shall en- 
deavor to take up the subjects separately, so that the 
reader may not be confounded as to instructions that may 
apply to a, work of lesser importance than that intended. 
Large reservoirs are a menace too often to public safety 
and mark the danger line in irrigating works, so that no 
serious mistake should be made in building them. 

Laying Out Reservoirs. As we have said be- 
fore, reservoirs should be built on as high ground as pos- 
sible. Never select a place for a reservoir where the 
bottom is more than four or five feet below the point of 
delivery, for all surplus water below this point does no 
good, and a dam must be built just so much stronger to 
hold this extra head. The pressure on the dam is no 
greater where the flowage is large than "where it is small. 
It is the bight of the column of water at the darn that 
must be figured on. High dams when not properly built 
are unsafe. Surface is the one thing most desirable in 
locating a reservoir. Get an idea of the size to be at- 
tained before the work is begun, and at the same time 
make a calculation as to the capacity of the proposed 
basin when completed. 

The size having been determined the staking out 
follows. If the reservoir is to cover a given area the 
whole banks will be within the area, and the foot of the 
outer slope will bound the given area. If the area is to 
exclude the bank, the foot of the inner slope will bound 
the area. If the water is to cover a given area, then the 
5 



66 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

high-water Hue as the point halfway down the bunk 
therefrom will bound the given area, or the area ma}* be 
bounded by the center line, either of the whole bank, or 
of the top of the bank. These conditions do not of 
course obtain where the natural sides of a ravine or canon 
are to form the greater portion of the reservoir's contour. 
Usually these considerations will not be of much impor- 
tance, but in the case of joint ownership or of contracting 
for the construction they may be important, and should 
then be clearly understood and carefully specified. 

Construction. One of the first things to be done 
after the site is secured is to make provision to draw off 
the water. In building a large reservoir with an earth 
embankment, wooden boxes or cribs of timber (although 
sometimes employed) are not to be recommended for per- 
manent use, as they soon decay, are very difficult to re- 
place, are a source of weakness to the reservoir, and do 
not admit of easily inserting a gate which can be freely 
operated. Stone culverts laid in cement are more costly 
and substantial as a rule, but require a special gate, which 
may give trouble. Iron piping, of which there are sev- 
eral kinds in the market, is perhaps the most suitable, 
and by its use ono can purchase the standard low-pres- 
sure water valves such as are in use in city waterworks, 
that are guaranteed to give satisfaction. In laying the 
pipe care must be taken to provide a safe and continuous 
bearing beneath it, otherwise the load imposed by the 
earth above will cause portions to settle and so loosen 
the joints. 

It is necessary, too, to dig one or more cross trenches 
from the pipe and pack them full of concrete, clay or 
good earthen puddle, bringing the same up two or inr- 
feet above the pipe so as to arrest any leakage along the 
outlet pipe. The surface upon which embnnkmenf ~ 
to rest should be plowed ;ind the roots of hiisho< :md 
weeds removed to the outer toe of the slop , ul Ur which 



HESERVOIHS AXD PONDS. 67 

the ground is again plowed and a trench dug along the 
center of each proposed embankment. When this much 
is done water should be applied. The abundant use of 
water is of prime importance in all works of this nature. 
Allow water to run into the trench until full, then begin 
to form the base of the embankments. As the contents 
of the scrapers, carts or wagons are dumped on the fill, 
have them thoroughly sprinkled, using, if no sprinkling 
cart is handy, a large barrel or plank box with a piece of 
perforated pipe for a sprinkler, controlled by a flap valve 
faced with leather. 

As the fill rises more water is turned into the trench, 
so that the whole base presents the appearance of two 
low, wide embankments, with a canal full of water be- 
tween them. By building with water in the center prac- 
tically the same results are secured as with a core of 
puddle clay, concrete, or masonry, without the serious dis- 
advantage of a joint on each side of such a core, which 
often proves fatal to the structure. By the other way 
there are no distinct joints, since the water in the trench 
percolates quite a distance on each side, and then these 
half embankments are watered by sprinkler, and packed 
by the passage of teams into a mass nearly as compact as 
that done under water. Another suggestion to those 
inexperienced in such work may be made in relation to 
the sorting of the materials. In nearly every case in 
practice the contents of the bank of the pit differ, run- 
ning from fine to coarse and from porous to impervious, 
and successful practice requires the placing of that 
which is the best adapted to retain water next to the 
edge of the water, or on the inner half, while the rocks, 
larger gravel and heavy substances in general are ranged 
from the outside toward the center on the outer half. It 
is the rule of practical builders of earthen embankments 
to make the width of the base line three times the bight, 
and this kind of construction, if properly put up, will 



G8 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

stand any natural pressure that may come upon it from 
the impounded waters. 

In storing water for irrigation it is advisable to make 
the slopes, particularly the inner one, more flat, and to 
protect them, where they are likely to be washed, by rip- 
rapping with rock, or slag, or lining with lumber. In 
works of lesser magnitude pebblestones placed along 
the water line will serve the purpose just as well. 

Masonry Work. In constructing a dam entirely 
of solid masonry no definite rules can be given, as the 
circumstances governing all cases will in no two instances 
be alike, and we can only give the method by which a 
substantial dam of this sort has been constructed. Let 
us take for example the Bear Valley reservoir in South- 
ern California. Into the solid rocks of a gorge the dam 
is abutted and is built in a curve arching inward, form- 
ing the arc of a circle, with a diameter of 335 feet, 
illustrated very graphically in Figure 17. Its dimensions 
are, on the top, 300 feet from the abutments, GO feet 
from the bed rook of the creek in the highest point, and 
conforming to the mountain slope on either side. The 
foundation is 17 feet in width, running up to three feet 
on the top, which is covered with huge blocks for coping. 
The whole is built of vast granite blocks, which wm i 
quarried near the margin of the lake and floated to the 
wall on scows, while a derrick built on a raft placed them 
in position. The best quality of Portland cement was 
used for laying them, and all the interstices were filled 
with beton, which was thoroughly tamped into place-. 
until the whole structure is one homogeneous mass. 
There are 3304 yards of rock work, on which 1300 bar- 
rels of cement have been used. The cement was the 
most expensive portion of the work. Beneath the dam 
is a stone culvert for the outlet. This is closed by a 
gate 21 by 24 inches, capable of discharging 8000 inches 
of water which runs into a weir where the flow is i\; 



RESERVOIRS AND PONDS, 09 

ured in inches. This gate and weir control the flow of 
water. On one side of the dam a spillway over solid 




FIG. 17. BEAR VALT,EY DAM. 



rock is provided for the overflow of the surplus water. 
This is some four feet lower than the crest of the dam 
and affords ample discharge for the superabundant water. 



70 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

The Sweetwater dam, built across the mouth of a 
canon a short distance above Xational City, California, 
and shown in the full-page photographic reproduction, 
Figure 18, is one of the boldest pieces of engineering in 
the world. . The dam is constructed as a crown arch, 
and is the largest of its character in the world. It is of 
solid granite and Portland cement, 46 feet thick at the 

and 12 at the top. It is 90 feet high at bed rock, 
76 feet long at the base and 396 feet at the top. The 
reservoir covers 700 acres, and has the enormous storage 
capacity of six billions of gallons. The water is dis- 
charged from the reservoir by means of a main pipe 36 
inches in diameter, and then by smaller pipes. Much 
of the land under this system is high and rolling, but 
the head is sufficient to carry the water to the highest 
portions. The dam gathers the rainfall from 186 square 
miles, and the capacity of the reservoir is sufficient to 
hold a two years' supply for 10,000 acres. 

Cost and Capacity. In calculating the cost of a 
reservoir it is necessary to fix the value of a defined vol- 
ume of water for irrigation purposes. For convenience 
take a volume of water of one million cubic feet. If this 
amount is applied without loss in transportation, as 
through pipes, it will irrigate on an average twenty aciv^ 
of land for one season when used very carefully. As- 
suming one-half of this area to allow for unavoidable 
loss by absorption, evaporation and the loss by the ordi- 
nary practice of irrigation, the area value of one million 
cubic feet of water will be considered as ten acres. On 
1 liis basis of ten acres for one million cubic feet, the cost of 
a n-st'rvoir built entirely on the surface of nearly U-vel 
ground from excavation made within the area enclosed, 
without borrowing or wasting material, has been calcu- 
lated. The price assumed for earthwork is twenty 
cents a cubic yard, which for banks twenty feet hii:h, 
with a long haul, is a fair price. The size calrula! 



72 IRKIGATION FARMING. 

1283 feet by 641.05 feet, holding 23,500,000 cubic feet 
of water. The cost is $37,617, which at 7 per cent per 
annum interest would be equal to an annual charge of 
$2,633, or $112.21 for a million cubic feet, without any 
allowance for maintenance. This, at the area value of 
ten acres for a million cubic feet, would irrigate 235 
acres at a cost of 811.22 an acre, which represents the 
total cost for all time to come. 

At some sites it might be necessary to pump water, 
and under the conditions likely to be met in practice, 
where the work will be done in isolated localities and 
confined to 90 or 120 days' work in the year, while the 
interest on the cost of the plant \vill have to be charged 
fora whole year, the cost will average about fifteen cents 
a million cubic feet to the foot raised, or about $15 to 
raise that amount of water 100 feet. This estimate is 
made on the basis of coal costing $5 a ton, and an average 
engine of 50-horse power. If the water is pumped dur- 
ing the whole year, the cost will be reduced to two-thirds 
of this amount. AVith a depression having natural sides 
in place, and where not more than one-fourth of the cir- 
cumference would have to be constructed, the cost would 
be proportionately less. 

Damming a Stream. The chief cause of failure 
in dams of all kinds is the faulty construction of the 
foundation. Dams should be made of timber or stone. 
For a safe and simple form of timber dam the foundation 
should be rock or a hard pan of gravel, and the mudsills 
on the lower tier should be bedded in broken rock, 
pounded down firmly with a fifteen-pound sledge. The 
sills are saddled, and the cross ties laid upon them are 
notched to rest upon the suddlrs, ;i :d two-inch- pins 
should be put through both of the logs. Whnv the 
foundation is shelving rock, one-and-n-h;il!' inch iron 
pins should be put down into tin- mcl\. ;it 1< i ' ;i in 
prevent sliding. But the sliding force is ;>l;.;o.^ n<, utral- 



RESERVOIRS AND PONDS. 



73 



ized in this form of dam by the weight of water which 
lies upon the sheeting. 

The tiers of timber are built up, saddled and 
notched. A plank sheeting is put down to the solid 
foundation above the first sill, and the end is spiked with 
eightpenny spikes firmly. The sheeting is filled to the 
foundation as close as possible, and hydraulic cement 
concrete is bedded in front of it to make a tight joint. 



*r*rj&$itf A ' .. ." 




FIG. 19. A DIVERTING DAJI. 

No leaks will ever trouble a dam founded in this way. 
The rafters should be strong enough to bear any weight 
of water which the stream may carry doubled. If the 
highest flood known is five or ten feet above the usual 
level, it is easy to estimate the strength of the rafters 
required and then double the number of them, putting 
them no more than two feet apart, if the sheeting is of 



74 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

one-inch board doubled. An apron should be put on 
the dam to receive the overflow. 

A masonry dam should be built on a foundation of 
concrete, laid on solid rock over piles driven close to- 
gether, and both sides protected by sheet piling. The 
piles should be left to protrude into the concrete foun- 
dation. Except for waterworks, or an irrigation con- 
duit, there should be no outlet in the bottom of the dam ; 
but the work should be of the most solid character. A 
waste channel for overflow should be made on the top 
large enough to carry off any possible flood, and the ends 
of the dam should be carried up with solid masonry as 
high as may ever be needed to prevent the cutting out of 
the ends by floods. A large dam should be constructed, 
regardless of expense, .to secure safety in every direction, 
and the small details of construction are very often the 
most important parts of the work. 

Storage Ponds. These are classified as those arti- 
ficial embankments that are made on the flat surface of 
the ground and are used mostly in connection with a 
pumping plant. In staking out, it will be best for the 
convenience of graders to drive stakes on the outer and 
inner base lines of the proposed bank. If the land on 
which the reservoir is to be built be of fresh sod it will 
be necessary to plow up or remove all of the sod from 
the ground on which the embankments are to be con- 
structed, otherwise there would remain a seam through 
which the water would escape from the reservoir, as sod 
i- not a suitable material upon which to build embank- 
ments, nor should it be used when building them up to 
their required bights. AVhen the outlines of the em- 
bankments are established and the sod removed, then 
plow within lines of the proposed embankments, and 
with a scraper draw tin- earth from the inside of the res- 
ervoir, with which to form the walls. These should not 
be less than five feet in liight, ineasiirini: on the outside, 



Ki;si;;;voiRS AXU PONDS. 75 

and very wide or thick at the ground level. The walls 
shoijd l.)i- so carried up that the slope from the inside 
will be very gradual, not alni])t, f.>r the reason that if 
the walls are nearly perpendicular wind waves will 
destroy them, hence the advantage of making the walls 
very sloping from the inside. The outer walls may he 
made more perpendicular, because there is no influence 
from the outside to injure them. 

Having built the walls by using the earth from the 
inside of the reservoir, and with everything ready for 
puddling the earth to hold water, the first thing in order 
is to plow all of the land over the whole bottom surface 
of the reservoir four or five inches deep, then with a 
harrow or drag or other suitable implement, reduce the 
earth to a very five pulverization, and after this shall 
have been thoroughly done, the next thing is to puddle. 
Turn the water into the reservoir and begin to puddle 
at one edge, puddling carefully along this edge until the 
earth shall have been reduced to mortar, and continue to 
work toward the other side until the entire bottom of 
the pond is completed as far up the embankment as can 
be worked to good advantage. It may often happen 
that puddling is out of the question owing to the porous 
condition of the bottom. If the soil is sandy haul into 
the basin several loads of any kjnd of clay obtainable 
and mix this thoroughly with the earth. Fresh manure 
or even sawdust may often be employed to just as good 
advantage. Very often it is only necessary to run 
muddy water into it and allow the sediment to find its 
way into the loose sand. Of course the more clay that 
is carried in the muddy water the more effectual will be 
the puddling. This method has proven successful in a 
very leaky lake which was excavated in an old creek bot- 
tom and almost entirely in coarse loose sand. 

In constructing these surface storage basins the di- 
mensions are best when fifty by one hundred feet, or one 



76 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

hundred by two hundred feet, etc., rather than of square 
form. A pond that is fifty by one hundred feet and 
containing five feet of water will irrigate twenty-five 
acres, and the whole plant, including a first-class wind 
divine, should not cost over $250. It is a good rule to 
have the pond of such size that it would not be necessary 
to empty it oftener than once or twice a week. That 
would make the supply of water at hand the main factor 
in determining the size of the pond. It might readily 
be figured out in this way : One gallon contains 231 
cubic inches. A space 23.1 inches high, covering ten 
square inches, equals one gallon, and one square foot or 
144 square inches 14.4 gallons. Now divide the number 
of gallons which can be pumped in three days' steady 
wind by 14.4, and the result will be the number of 
square feet necessary for the bottom of a pond two feet 
deep, and one-half that number will be sufficient for one 
four feet deep. 

Cementing. To make a pond perfectly impervious 
for all time and give the best satisfaction in the end, 
line it with paving pitch, or Portland cement. If the 
latter the preparation can be applied the same as de- 
scribed in the preceding chapter on canal construction. 
The best coating for such work is a composition of hot 
clean sand mixed with hot paving pitch, to which has 
been added a per cent of crude oil residuum, and the whole 
mixture applied hot, say at about 300 degrees, and spread 
much in the same way as the asphalt coating is applied up- 
on streets. This mixture could be used while hot as a 
mortar and spread with a trowel or with a flat shovel. If 
spivad smoothly and evenly while hot and with as much 
pressure as possible to make it compact, it would soon 
set and form a coating that would give more or less with 
the settling of the ground, that would be absolutely water- 
tight and that would not deteriorate under the chain:'- 
of temperature. The paving mixture itself comes in 



RESERVOIRS AND PONDS. 77 

barrels of some 550 pounds and could be furnished at 
$25 a ton. The sand free from any loam could always 
be secured at or very near the pond, and the whole mixed 
at the job and applied as fast as mixed. It would be 
safe to estimate that the paying pitch for this kind of 
work would not exceed three cents a square foot should 
the entire coating run an inch thick when laid. Treated 
in this way a pond will not leak and the only loss of 
water will be from evaporation, which varies from 50 to 
100 inches annually. This loss reduces the amount for 
irrigation or other purposes that can be depended upon 
by about 30 per cent. The more humid the section the 
less the loss. 

Gates and Spillways. In all large reservoirs it 
is necessary to provide a conduit or culvert to convey the 
water to the supply ditch leading from the reservoir. 
This may be built of masonry work the proper size to 
carry the amount of water the ditch will accommodate, 
and should be laid up with water lime or cement. As 
we have said, this should be built the first thing before 
the walls of the reservoir are commenced. The gate 
should always be put on the inside end. A very simple 
and easy gate to operate, say up to eight or nine feet sur- 
face, is what is called the paddle gate. The end of the 
sluice that the gate goes on should be made as follows : 
Extend the bottom into the pond eight or ten inches, 
pull the top back so the sides will describe an angle of 
fifty-five degrees to the bottom line, make the face straight 
and smooth, put two pieces of 3x6 timber on top of the 
wall and let them run back under the dirt work. Cut 
the paddle or gate about two inches larger than the 
aperture. Bolt two cleats near the ends and let them 
extend four inches above. Then bolt on a handle or 
lever in the center three by four inches, and eight feet 
long ; bolt a roller crosswise to the cleats and handle 
close down to the top of the gate, and make some convex 



78 IRRIGATION FAHMIXG. 

boxes in the timbers on top of the wall to receive them. 
Put some strap iron over these gudgeons so the water 
will not lift the gate out of place. Put a pulley in the 
top end of the handle and set a post on the top of the 
embankment. Fasten one end of the rope to the post 
and pass it through the pulley and back to the post. 
The action^of the water will always close the gate, and to 
open it take hold of the loose end of the rope, and pull 
back and snub it to the post. 

If the reservoir is so situated that it will catch any 
amount of surface or storm water it must be provided 
with an ample spillway large enough to take off the sur- 
plus water, so that in no emergency can the water rise 
over the crest of the dam; and the spillway must be pro- 
vided with large and ample aprons, so the momentum of 
the water pouring over the spillway will not cut out the 
bottom below the dam and undermine it. More dams 
are lost from the action of the water on the lower side 
than on the upper side. 

The first step to be taken in building storm reser- 
voirs is to build a substantial waste way. This should 
be built of timber bents boarded up with two-inch plank. 
Make a water-tight bottom under the wasteway. This 
can be done either with lumber or brush. If made of 
brush, cut willows and tie them in bundles six or eight 
inches in diameter; the length of the whips should be 
ten or twelve feet. Tie two bands around them three or 
four feet apart. Commence with the brush at least 
thirty feet below the center line of the dam and lay the 
bundles butt end down stream, close together in tiers ;it 
least six feet wider than the wasteway. Then com- 
mence with another tier, putting them back three feet 
up stream, and so on until they reach into the reservoir 
fifteen or twenty feet above the center line. Put onto 
the brush a light coat of gravel so as to fill up all the 
cracks, and then erect the bentwork on this bottom. 



RESERVOIRS AND PONDS. 



79 



Plank ii}) the sides with two-inch plank and fill in 
lii-t \veen the sides of the bentwork level with gravel, and 
put plenty of gravel on that part of brush above the 
bentwork. 

A Hydraulic Embankment. A novelty in the 
way of reservoir construction is that of the great dam 
built by a local water company at Santa Fe, New Mexico. 
By means of a gigantic hydraulic plant, the sides of a 
cailon were torn down and the detached material thus 
obtained was carried through a fourteen-inch main and 
deposited on the embankment under a pressure of 140 
pounds to the square inch. The action of the water 
both cemented and puddled it there. Immediately above 
the site the banks of the stream separate so as to include 




FIG. 20. CROSS SECTION OF HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR. 

a reservoir of a somewhat oval shape 1600 feet long and 
500 feet in average width, and of an average depth of 30 
feet. As shown by the cross section in Fig. 20, the dam 
is 85 feet in hight at the middle of the stream and is 300 
feet wide at the bottom. Its entire length is over 1000 
feet. Its careful construction and the precautions taken 
to render the dam impervious' to water are shown by 
the cross section. Under the upper half of the dam the 
excavation is made to bed rock ; parallel strips of bed- 
rock surface are broken fresh, and concrete ribs built 
thereon parallel with the center of the dam. In these 
concrete ribs, in the composition of which the very best 
hydraulic cement is used, triple sheet piling is embed- 
ded and carried up into the puddle. The entire upper 



80 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

half of the clam was puddled and spread in thin layers, 
and each day a herd of goats was driven onto the bank 
and kept moving the entire time. There is three feL't 
thickness of quarry-broken riprap on the upper side to 
protect the dam from action of the waves. Where the 
creek channel passes under the dam a semi-circular arch 
rests on bed rock to carry off any sudden rise which 
might have occurred during construction, and also to 
provide room for the pipes to the basin below. This arch 
is built solid, full of concrete near the upper end, at the 
same time walling in the pipes. From the opening to 
the arch and extending upward' there is a well for the 
purpose of taking the supply at any desired level, thus 
relieving any strain at the conduit, and serving also as 
a manhole. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES. 

People who have plenty of money and little water 
will find that the employment of pipes will enable them 
to use whatever water they have to the best advantage. 
The use of pipe lines for conveying water, in the place of 
ditches or flumes, has increased much since the intro- 
duction of certain cheaper forms of pipe. In the West 
pipes of wood banded with iron are extensively used as 
are also pipes of spiral, riveted, or welded iron or steel. 
The latter combine great strength with lightness and 
economy. Where waters can be forced under heavy pres- 
sure the use of surface pipe lines of light pipe will find a 
broad field of usefulness and should receive such con- 
sideration as its merits deserve, especially where the work 
of constructing ditches or flumes is of any special mag- 
nitude. A large pipe line is intended to take the pkce 
of a main ditch or flume and not of the distributing lat- 
erals. The advantage of a pipe line over a ditch lies in 
the fact that the water supply is not reduced by seepage 
or evaporation, and the duty of a reservoir is thereby in- 
creased. The area of surface occupied by the pipe line 
is not nearly so great as the space occupied by the ditch 
and embankments, arid thus the area subject to cultiva- 
tion is increased. The cost of maintenance is less, for a 
pipe line will need but little attention, whereas ditches, 
however well they may be made, will require an annual 
overhauling. The advantage over a flume lies in the 
fact that evaporation and leakage are done away with. 
It is here assumed that a pipe connects with a well or 
6 81 



82 IUKIGATIOJS' FAKMI.NU. 

fountain liead, as otherwise there could be no pressure up- 
on the pipe and it would stand in relation to delivery on a 
plane with the ditch or flume. If the line is accommo- 
dated to the surface and there is any inverted or down- 
ward bend in the pipe, there should be a valve set at the 
lowest point to provide for the emptying or draining of 
the pipe during cold weather, or for repairs. The* pipe 
may he laid on or near the surface on low supports of 
such form and material as circumstances may sur^vst. 
The matter of grade is of little importance, for the water 
being forceJ will run up hill as well as down, and a pipe 
may be laid to the natural grade of the surface and de- 
liver water on a level with the fountain head. 

Pressure of Pipes. For the purpose of consider- 
ing the pressure we will divide the classes of pipes into 
three kinds : low pressure pipes, medium pressure pipes 
and high pressure pipes. By low pressure pipes we mean 
those which are not required to withstand any greater 
pressure than that occasioned by the gravity flow of 
water through them, with the addition of a few feet if 
necessary. We will designate as medium pressure pipes 
those which are able to withstand a pressure of fifty 
pounds to the square inch with safety, and as high pres- 
sure pipes those which can safely resist a pressure of 120 
pounds to the square inch. Pipes made of riveted sheet 
iron or steel No. 16, vitrified clay or cement, are classified 
as low pressure pipes ; those made of riveted sheet iron or 
steel No. 14, or of wooden staves banded with wrought 
iron, are classified as medium pressure pipes ; and those 
made of sheet iron or steel No. 12, or of cast iron, are clas- 
sified as high pressure pipes. While these classifications 
correctly separate the different kinds of pipe into classes 
on the basis of their ability to resist pressure, still there is 
also a difference between the various kinds of pipe be- 
longing to each class. In the low pressure pipes the sheet- 
iron or steel is the strongest, the vitrified clay the next 



PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES. 



83 



strongest and the cement the weakest. In the medium 
pressure pipes the sheet-iron or steel is the stronger and 
the wooden pipe the weaker, while in the high ^pressure 
pipes the cast-iron is stronger than the sheet-iron or 
steel pipe. The judgment or skill of the person in 
charge must always be exercised in choosing a pipe suitable 
for each case, as no inflexible rule can be laid down 
which does not vary with the conditions met. 

Grades of Iron Pipe. There is virtually no dif- 
ference in the prices of iron and steel piping. Wrought 
iron is more rigid, making a pipe less likely to become 
dented or flattened by external pressure, and more 
porous, which allows the particles of asphalt coating both 
to enter and become assimilated, as it were, with the iron. 
On the other hand it 
is less strong to resist ^ 
an internal pressure, 
and is likely to scale 
while being bent, 
which may prevent a 
perfect coating. The 
greater strength of 
steel can seldom be 
utilized except under high pressures, on account of its 
liability to collapse, but its smooth surface without scales 
or other defects is an advantage. As toughness and 
malleability are more to be desired than great tensile 
strength, it is customary to specify that the plates in 
either iron or steel shall be annealed ; in other words, 
heated to a cherry red in a close oven and then slowly 
cooled, or what is better, cooled in lime or oil. 

In this country riveted pipes come in sheets three to 
three and one-half feet in width and of various lengths. 
These sheets after being sized and punched in multiple 
punching machines are bent around rollers to the re- 
quired size, taking care that the grain of the iron or 




FIG. 21. RIVETED IRON PIPE. 



84 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

steel shall lie around the pipe. These short cylinders 
are then double-riveted along the straight seam, using a 
good quality of Swedish or Norway iron. By means of 
traveling cranes and numerous supports seven or eight 
of the short lengths are afterwards continuously riveted, 
making a section of completed pipe of from twenty to 
twenty-five feet long. A section of this pipe may be seen 
in Figure 21. 

Only one row of rivets is inserted in the end or 
round seams, and the joint is made by expanding one 
end by means of specially devised machinery, by accom- 
plishing the same object in riveting, or by making an 






FIG. 22. SPIRAL IKON PIPE. 

equal number of large and small cylinders so that the 
end of the smaller can be driven into the end of the 
larger and riveted. 

Spiral iron pipe, shown in Figure 22, is made in much 
the same way, and some advantages are claimed for it by 
manufacturers. 

Laminated Iron Pipe. In California twenty years 
ago the irrigators used plain sheet-iron pipes, which soon 
corroded so badly that they were worn-out completely 
and had to be taken up. The life of a sheet-iron pipe 
depends on its coating, and without some protection 
against oxidation the shell of the pipe will soon be con- 
sumed by rust. Wrought iron laminated asphalted pipe- 
arc made of two shells of sheet iron. These shells are 
made of one sheet of iron eight feet long, rolled and hip- 
ped one inch, and united by a composition solder. They 
are half the thickness of iron that would be necessary 



PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES. 

for the ordinary sheet-iron pipe. The inner shell is tele- 
scoped into the outer shell while immersed in hot asphalt 
especially prepared, giving a thickness between the sheets 
one-sixteenth of an inch or more if desired, thus making 
an impassable barrier to corrosion from outside or inside. 
The outside and inside coatings are also substantial. 
This produces a solid shell eight feet long with an inner 
surface free from all excrescences. The pipe is also made 
double, of one sheet, by rolling a sheet that is twice the 
width 01 the single sheet until the edges will lap with a 
thickness of iron between them. The lap is riveted. 
This is dipped in asphalt, but it cannot have the inter- 
mediate lamina of asphalt, which is the main advantage 
of the laminated over the single sheet-iron pipe. Both 
these descriptions of pipes are jointed end to end, an 
inner sleeve being fixed in the shop. In laying, the end 
is dipped in hot asphalt and an outer sleeve is also dipped 
and pressed on by a clamp over the joint until the asphalt 
is set. Bends and branches are of cast iron, as in the 
ordinary sheet-iron pipe, and the joints are made with 
cement. 

Steel Pipe. Owing to freight charges cast-iron 
pipe is practically barred in the Western countries, and 
the steel pipe is fast superseding it as well as all forms 
of iron pipe. The present price of steel is rather less 
than that of iron, and since steel suitable for this class 
of work is twenty per cent stronger than the best wrought 
iron, there is no good reason why this large saving in 
cost should not be made. The claim that wet soil cor- 
rodes steel more rapidly than it does iron, does not seem 
to be substantiated by experience. Since there are so 
many grades of steel and there is so great a variety in the 
' methods of production, it is necessary in order to secure a 
uniform suitable product that the specifications be unusu- 
ally specific and stringent, that the material be inspected 
at the mills, and that the appropriate tests be made in 



86 



IRRIGATION FARMlXi,. 




order to obtain the desired grade. Steel pipe is made up 
substantially in the same way as described under fore- 
going headings. 

Vitrified Clay Pipe. The materials employed 
and the mode of manufacturing clay pipe do not differ 
essentially from those of pressed brick. Suitable clay 
mixed with loam is first ground dry, then moistened and 
toughened, in which state it is placed by machinery into 
the pipe molds and subjected to a pressure of at least 
350 pounds to the square inch. After being pressed the 
lengths are allowed a week or longer to dry, when they 
are removed to the kiln, stacked verti- 
cally with the spigot ends down, kiln- 
burned for four or more days and, when 
properly burned, very gradually and 
slowly cooled. The glassy coating 
which modern clay pipes possess is due 
to the sprinkling of salt over the heak-d 
pipe in the kiln at the close of the 
burning. Owing to the application of 
common salt and to the high tempera- 
use( l i 11 burning, common clay pipe 
1>11M is now termed salt glazed vitrified pipe. 

Figure 23 shows a, joint of vitrified pipe. In laying this 
kind of pipe the joints are fitted in the collars, and 
these are made to rest on solid ground or are placed upon 
blocks of stone or wood. The lengths are usually two 
feet and the pipe is calculated to stand the pressure of a 
dray team with heavy load passing over it. A common 
sort of clay or cement pipe is made the same as the vitri- 
fied but is not glazed and is not so lasting. To make 
this pipe porous, sawdust is mixed with the clay and is 
burned out during the baking process. 

The matters which principally require attention in 
vitrified and cement pipes are leaks at joints, removing 
roots from the inside of pipes, replacing cracked pipes 



PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES. 87 

and doing the necessary earth work, with the addition of 
replacing worn-out pipes in the case of the latter. The 
cement pipes being softer und more porous than the vit- 
rified are more subject to these troubles, and consequently 
their cost of maintenance is much greater. An average 
cement pipe will lust not to exceed eight years, but the 
vitrified kind will last a lifetime and is certainly much 
cheaper in the end. 

The Asbestine System. This is a method of 
piping devised by a California man named E. M. Hamil- 
ton, and is used exclusively in sub-irrigation. It con- 
sists of a continuous pipe made of a combination of Port- 
land cement, lime, sand and gravel, laid at a depth of 
two feet or so below 
the surface of the 
ground, parallel to 
the rows of trees or 
vines in an orchard 
or vineyard. In 
these pipes on the 
upper side is insert- 
ed a nipple opposite FIG - 24 - ASBESTINE PIPE MACHINE. 
each tree or vine, one-eighth of an inch or so in diam- 
eter, through which the water finds exit. Each plug is 
surrounded by a length of larger stand pipe setting 
loosely on top of the distributing pipe, open at the bot- 
tom and reaching to the surface of the ground, for 
the purpose of keeping the dirt away from the outlet and 
rendering it accessible at all times for inspection. The 
pipes are connected with mains leading from a reservoir. 
The water finds its way through all the outlets, filling 
the stand pipes and slowly percolating to the roots of 
the plants. The trenches for this system should be dug 
two feet deep and sixteen inches wide, and the pipe itself 
is laid by a patented machine shown in Figure 24, which 
also illustrates the manner of laying. 




88 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

The material used is Portland cement, dry slaked 
lime free from lumps, and perfectly clean sand. The 
proportion is seven parts sand, one part cement and one 
part lime. One barrel of cement and one of lime 
with a proportionate amount of sand will make 350 feet 
of two-inch pipe. The stuff is mixed as the work pro- 
gresses and is put into the hopper of the machine by the 
shovelful. The operator works the lever forward and 
back, and rs he does so the whole machine moves along 
a notch at a time and leaves the completed string of 
pipe in its wake. 

Wooden Stave Pipes. For low pressures and 
large diameters wooden stave pipe is to be recommended. 
It supplies a long-felt want between the grade pipes such 




FIG. 25. SIDE VIEW OF STAVE PIPE. 

as vitrified clay and cement, and the pressure pipes such 
as riveted steel or wrought iron. Sectional views are 
given in Figures 25 and 2G. 

The walls of the pipe are formed of longitudinal 
staves braced together with iron or steel bands. These 
are shaped to cylindrical forms and on the edges to true 
radial lines, so that when put together they form a per- 
fectly cylindrical pipe. The flat edges of the staves are 
essential to enable the empty pipe to resist the pressure 
from the overlying earth. To join the ends of the staves 
a thin metallic tongue is inserted, which being a trifle 



PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES. 89 

longer than the width of the stave, cuts into the adjoin- 
ing ones. This joint is very tight and easy to make. 
The confining bands are of round or flat iron, or steel, of 
from three-eighths to three-fourths inches in diameter. 
As shipped from the factory they are straight and pro- 
vided on one end with a square head and on the other 
with a thread and nut. They are bent on the ground 
0:1 a bending table and coated with mineral paint, or 




FIG. 26. CROSS SECTION OF STAVE PIPE. 

asphalt varnish, and are cut about six inches longer than 
the outside circumference of the pipe, on which they are 
slipped loose. The ends are joined by means of a closed 
iron screw, which fits close upon the pipe and provides a 
shoulder for the head and nut. These bands are placed 
at varying distances apart, according to pressure which 
the pipe is required to bear. The staves break joints so 
as to form a continuous pipe, which leaves no obstruc- 
tion to the flow of water. The beauty of this system is 



90 



IRRIGATION l-ARMIXt;. 



that it is made on the ground, and the workmen do not 
have to be especially experienced. 

It is always economy to purchase the staves already 
dressed, and thereby save in freight charges. In con- 
tracting for such materials, the specifications should call 
for sound, well seasoned, close and straight grained lum- 
ber, free from all knots, worm holes, season checks, sap- 




FIG. 27. STAVE PIPE LINE IN POSITION. 

wood, splints, or other like defects, and cut from live 
trees. In piping, ranging in diameter from eighteen 
inches to three or four feet, the staves are usually pre- 
pared from carefully selected 2x6 joists, and this joist 
when dressed will make a stave about five and five- 
eighths inches along i:< ouler arc, and about one And 
nine->i\teenths inches thick. 



PIPES FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES. 91 

Iii laying the pipe the trench is usually excavated at 
least eighteen inches wider than the outer diameter of 
the pipe, to provide standing room for the workmen ; the 
number of staves needed to form the pipe are placed in 
piles along the trench and a foreman with five workmen 
form a gang. The tools used by a gang are a twelve- 
pound sledge, an oak driver banded on one end, four 
two-pound hammers, two chisels, four crank wrenches, 
two inside forms of coiled gas pipe and two outside U- 
>shaped forms of the same material. A completed line 
of stave pipe with an abandoned flume just above it is 
pictured in Figure 27. In this instance the pipe was 
kid above ground, as can just as well be done in coun- 
tries where the winters are mild. The capacity of a 
thirty-inch skive pipe is computed on thirty inches 
diameter as follows : 



Grade or fall in 
feet per 1000 ft. 


Discharge in 
gallons per 24 hours. 


Grade or full in 
feet per 1000 ft. 


Discharge in gal- 
lons per 24 hours. 


0.10 
0.15 
0.30 
0.50 
0.80 
1.0 


3,330,000 
4.1(50,000 
(i,120,000 
8,030.000 
10,200,000 
11,400,000 


3.0 
5.0 
8.0 
10.0 
16.0 
20.0 


19,900,000 
25.700,000 
32.500,000 
36,300,000 
46,000,000 
51,400,000 



Cost of Pipes. To determine the capacity of any 
pipe it may be well to remember that twice the given 
diameter increases the capacity four times. The factor 
of first cost to the pipe, while it is undoubtedly the one 
requiring the least labor to determine, is also the most 
difficult to arrive at with exactness. Being subject to 
commercial laws cf supply and demand, transportation, 
competition, etc., this item is so variable that exact esti- 
mates can only be given for the present, which may not 
be at all reliable for the future. It will therefore be our 
aim to present estimates of cost which may be taken as 
a fair average and will be relatively correct as between 
the different kinds of pipe. With this in view the fol- 



92 



IRK1GATION FAEMING. 



lowing table has been prepared, which covers the sizes 
and kinds of pipe heretofore principally used in the con- 
struction of piped irrigation systems : 





;- 6 


~6 


b d 


* 


1 





r 


Diain. in 


ssS 


?=L^ 


= jL.;t 


ci 


_ j' 


- 1 


~ 


inches. 


7Z& 


'T'-.^ 


"^"p^ 


:s 


c';T 


E 


^ 




|| 


II* 

cc *3 


IS 


ill 


| 


X 

r 


1 


Q 


$0 32 


$0.41 


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CHAPTER IX. 

FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. 

Flumes arc boxes or troughs used to convey water 
where ditches are impracticable, or needlessly expensive 
either to construct or to maintain. Where a ravine, 
valley, or any considerable depression crosses the line of 
a ditch the water may be turned into a flume, carried 
over the depression, and then discharged into another 
ditch on the further side. It may be advisable to carry 
the water in a flume over loose sandy soil, where the loss 
by percolation would be so excessive as to render a suffi- 
cient delivery from an open ditch either difficult or 
impossible. Special forms of sheet-iron or other sheet- 
metal flumes are much used in mountainous sections 
because of their lightness, tightness and economy, and 
the facility of erecting them in difficult places. As 
usually constructed flumes are merely wooden boxes open 
at the top and of such size and strength as is necessary 
to carry, and support the water supplied. Many in the 
West are of great size and strength, and traverse great 
distances and at great hights. The grades may, if neces- 
sary, be somewhat lighter and the size smaller than those 
of the ditches supplying them, because of the lesser fric- 
tion and the greater facility of flow. The volume of 
water to be carried will regulate the size the same as in 
the ditches, and the grade will in the same way regulate 
the carrying capacity by increasing or decreasing the 
mean velocity of the current. The flume box may be 
made of two-inch plank, selected as free from loose knots 
or cracks as possible. If a small box is needed for lat- 

93 



94 IRRIGATION FARMIXG. 

erals a single plank of fourteen to eighteen inches will 
do for the bottom and similar ones for the sides. The 
supports may in many cases be 'a single line of heavy 
fence posts, which may be had in lengths as great as 
twelve to fourteen feet. The butts set two or three feet 
into the ground and well tamped give a good foundation. 
When greater hights than ten to twelve feet are met, a 
trestle of timber posts properly footed, braced and 
anchored should be used. The planks before being 
spiked together may be painted, along the edges in con- 
tact, with a coat of very thick paint. This will not only 
aid in making a water-tight joint, but will preserve the 
wood at the joint. After the completion of the flume 
go over all of the joints with a coat of thick paint or tar, 
applied with an old stiif brush. A small leak may often 
be stopped by filling the crack with stiff clay or mud. 

Curves and Grades. Where flumes are used and 
practicable, they are set on a heavier grade than canals 
thirty to thirty-five feet to the mile is a good rule 
and are of proportionally smaller area than canals with 
lesser grade. They should be constructed in straight 
lines if possible. Curves where required should T>e care- 
fully set out, so that the flume may discharge its maxi- 
mum quantity. In the ordinary style of construction, 
sills, posts and ties support and strengthen the work at 
every four feet. The posts are mortised into the ties 
and sills. The sills extend at least twenty inches beyond 
tjie posts, to which side braces are nailed to strengthen 
the structure. Where flumes are not supported on tres- 
tles, but rest on an excavated ledge, it is desirable still 
to use the stringers, which should be placed just outside 
the posts, so that water leaking from the sides will drop 
clear of them. Main supports, such as trestles, are placed 
eight or more feet apart. Planking should be of pine. 
redwood or hemlock. The cross section of a flume should 
be no narrower than the bottom of the ditch, for if not 



FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. ( .<~> 

built in this way there would necessarily be a contraction 
that would cheek the free flow of water. This leads to 
the question of velocity. The best flumes arc built wMi 
a vertical drop of from two to four feet at the upper end 
of the structure and these drops have come to take the 
place of the inclined aprons, which were formerly much 
in vogue. There should also be a similar drop at the 
lower end of the flume to make a water cushion by which 
the velocity is broken and washing out is prevented. 
Most engineers agree that the more velocity a flume has 
without dropping the grade the better it will be, provided 
arrangements are made to take care of the water at the 
discharge. If a flume is narrowed in toward its discharge 
the sides should be raised proportionately, in order to pro- 
vide the proper carrying capacity and at the same time 
prevent slopping over. 

Construction. There are wooden and iron flumes, 
each built in various forms. In building wooden flumes 
they are so superficial at best that they should be well 
made and no expense should be spared in their construc- 
tion. The best material only should be used, and the 
writer has found seasoned and surfaced lumber prefer- 
able to unseasoned stuff. It is best to tar or creosote 
well-seasoned lumber, and painting or tarring green mate- 
rial is to be discouraged, as it only induces decay and 
brings on disappointing results. Tarring may be done 
in vats before construction, or it may be done afterwards 
by using mops or brushes. We would advise in the lat- 
ter case the application of boiling hot tar on the inside 
only and after all joints, seams and crevices had been 
carefully calked with oakum. The boxing of flumes is 
generally of three different forms. In the first the floor 
is built directly on stringers and the planking floor placed 
at right angles with the longitudinal axis of the flume or 
the flow of the water. The second style is to lay floor 
beams on the stringers, bracing them at intervals so as 



FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. 



97 



to bear the water pressure. The standards and floor 
beams are boxed in and bolted to the outside braces, the 
whole forming the foundation for the. sheath ing or box- 
ing. The third form, employed more generally on large 
flumes, consists in framing the floor beams and stringers 
in cross yokes to receive the boxing. 

A verygocd representation of a flume provided with 
a waste gate is portrayed in Figure 28. It is customary 




FIG. 29. FLUME ACROSS A VALLEY. 

to place a waste gate in each flume, because the struc- 
ture furnishes a cheap mode of introducing an escape, 
and furthermore it is desirable to be able to empty the 
canal immediately in case the structure should neecl 
repair. Where flumes are built on trestles the latter are 
usually supported on piles, though in cases where the 
bed of the drainage is of sufficiently firm nature, they 
7 



FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. 99 

nst simply on mudsills. Suitable drains and wings 
must be provided at both ends of the flume. Where 
Um-h flumes are constructed it is best to make the bench 
twice as wide as the flume in order that there may be a 
footway alongside. In such flumes the foundation is 
simply mudsills and crossbeams. 

In sheathing a wooden flume it is best to use large 
\viro nails or cut spikes for the floor, but the sides should 
be fastened with bolts through inside cleats at the joints. 
If nails are used in the side planking they will rot out 
and it will be found impossible to keep the planks on. 

The weak spot in every flume is at either end where 
the woodwork joins upon the earth or terreplein, as the 
case may be. There the earth should be carefully pud- 
dled at the apron and the whole surface from side to 
side of the ditch, and the sides as well, should be tamped 
and retamped. Retaining walls or riprap at the sides 
and embracing the flaring wings may be employed, but 
in any event the tamping must be thoroughly done and 
the work gone over time and again if needs be in order 
to prevent the possibility of washing out. This tamping 
will be necessary if either the drop box or the inclined 
apron be used. 

The bracing of a flume is an important matter, es- 
pecially with deep flumes. A good system of side brac- 
ing is depicted in the bridge flume across a stream, and 
shown in Figure 30. 

Cross-section braces are often made with iron rods 
running through the side posts and tightened with nuts 
and washers. Any builder can arrange the matter of 
the bracing to suit himself. 

In very high flumes a lofty trestle work may be re- 
quired. If this is the case it is better to build the bents 
in sections on the ground and then raise them into posi- 
tion by means of tackle blocks and a windlass, or by using 
a steam hoisting drum if the same may be readily ot>- 



FLUMES AND THEIR STRLC1UKE. 101 

tained without much expense. The modus operandi of 
hoisting these great trestle sections is clearly illustrated 
in Figure 31, which is a sceiie taken by photograph dur- 
ing the construction of a high flume near San Diego, 
California. As a general rule such structures as this 
are not practicable. 

The great bench flume on the High-line canal in 
Colorado is illustrated in Figure 32. This flume is 
twenty-eight feet wide, seven feet deep, and is set on a 
grade of from five to eight feet to the mile, its total 
length being 2640 feet and its capacity 1184 second feet. 
The timbers supporting the flooring are sufficiently 
heavy and abundant to render the work substantial, 
while the sills supporting it are well braced and framed. 
The side braces supporting the uprights are peculiarly 
and expensively housed by letting them into iron castr 
ings or shoes at either end. These shoes, bolted to the 
woodwork of the flume, cannot be said to have increased 
the life of the structure, as they have caught rain or 
leakage water and have thus added greatly to the deteri- 
oration of the wood. 

Pluming Across a River. Another notable 
flume is shown in Figure 33. It is the wooden flume 
across the Pecos river in New Mexico. The bottom of 
this great flume is 40 feet above the river bed, it is 25 
feet wide in the clear, 8 feet deep, 475 feet long, and 
rests on substantial trestle work with spans ]6 feet in 
length. Across the river bed this flume is founded on 
cribs drift-bolted to the solid bed rock of the river and 
filled with rock. The abutments of this flume at its 
junction with the canal, which runs on top of the terre- 
plein, consists of wooden wings set back a distance of 12 
feet into the earth, well braced, and supported on anchor 
piling and filled with earth. The planking of these 
wings is two inches in thickness. The flume rests on 
five sets of 12x12 timbers forming each bent of the tres- 




IK;. ;;.'. i;i;.\< n i- n MI. i <>i; A I.AK-.I. i ANAL. 



104 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



tie, and these are well cross-braced. On them rests a 
cap piece 12x12 inches, and on this are ten longitudinal 
stringers 16 feet in length, extending from one bent of 
the trestle to the other. These stringers are 6x12 tim- 
ber, and on them are nailed 2-inch floor planking placed 
at right angles to the current. The side bracing of the 
flume consists of 6x8 scantling 8 feet in length, though 
at present these are planked for a depth of only 5 feet, 
giving the flume that available depth. These pieces are 
placed 4 feet apart between centers and are braced by 
short struts at each bent of the trestle. 

Iron Flumes. One of the greatest objections to 
the use of wooden irrigating flumes is the alternate 

shrinking and 
swelling of the 
wood and the con- 
sequent w a r p i 11 g 
and distortion of 
the structures. To 

FIG. 81. SIDE VIEW OF SMALL Ii:oX FLUME. overcome ^3 fliffi- 

culty, and at the sc.me time to provide a durable substi- 
tute, easy of transportation and erection, M. H. Lay- 
bourn of New Windsor, Col- 
orado, has designed and pat- 
ented an iron flume, which 
is illustrated herewith. 

Galvanized iron is uced 
for the trough of the flume, 
which is supported in various 
ways, according to the exi- 
gencies of the case, but gen- 
erally by means of cast-ir n 

* J A . FI<;. 86. BND \ 1 1 \\ 

brackets placed on timber IRON r^nu 

supports. Figure 34 shows a small flume, supported on 
single posts. In this, as in other cases, the upper edge 
is stiffened by means of a board or plank, which also 





FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. 105 

provides a means of fastening the flume to the bracket. 
Figure 35 shows a larger flume half circular in section, 
supported by a bracket at each side resting on horizontal 
timber. In both these cases the board beneath the flume 
may be omitted, but it aids in erection, and adds stability 
to the structure. The smaller sizes do not have riveted 
connections between joints, and therefore, especially in 
the use of the single post support, may be easily moved 
from one locality to another. 

The general shape of the flumes in section is para- 
bolic. Where depth is restricted and the volume of 
water to be carried is large, the type shown by Figure 3G 




FIG. 36. CROSS SECTION OF LARGE IRON FLUME. 

i.s a ilopted, the sides being parabolic and the bottom cir- 
cular. In this case the bottom of the flume is sup- 
ported throughout its entire length by plank or timber 
on edge let down into the sill of the trestle to conform 
to the shape of the flume. 

In case it is desired iron may be substituted for the 
timber supports. Figures 37'and 38 show how admirably 
this form of flume may be adapted to a rough country, by 
resting one end of the sills on a precipitous rock wall 
and supporting the other on timbers, or by means of 
rods and eyebolts driven into an overhanging cliff. 



106 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



Either galvanized iron, black iron, or asphalted sheet 
iron may be used for the trough. All the metal used in 




FIG. 38. FLUME WITH OVER- 
HANGING SUPJfOKT. 



FIG. 37. 



KLr.MK OX A KOCKY 
LBDQK. 



constructing the flume i3, or may be if desired, shipped 
with it, so the erection is very easy. 

Siphons. These are often used to convey a ditch 
under instead of over a depression in the earth, and may 
aptly be called an inverted box flume, into which the 
water flows at the upper end and is discharged at a 
somewhat lower level on the other side of the ravine or 
gulch. The same materials as are used in flumes may 
be employed, and the only extra precaution required is to 
have them well bolted or provided with braces, that are 

I as tight as possible. Iron bolts or linsps are best. 
Cast-iron pipes of sufficient diameter, or sheet-steel tubes 
may be used with favorable results. It should not be 
forgotten, when deep and wide depressions are to l>o 
crossed, that the Great Architect of the Universe, in 
providing that water should rise to its own level, has 



FLUMES AND THEIR STRUCTURE. 107 

done away with the necessity for tall and costly trestles. 
The Moors, whose works still remain as a witness of 
their constructive skill, understood the use of this be- 
neficent provision, and employed it in works that would 
not disgrace an engineer of the present time. 



CHAPTER X. 

DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 

In order to determine the amount of land which can 
be served by the flowing water of an irrigating season 
and by the storage of water of the non-irrigating season, 
it is necessary to ascertain the quantity of water which 
should be used in serving a definite area of land. This 
is called by irrigation engineers the duty of water, which 
by the way is affected by the amount of rainfall, the arti- 
ficially supplied water being complementary to it. It is 
also affected by latitude, altitude and other climatic con- 
ditions. It is further affected by the character of the 
soils, and finally depends largely upon the kind of crops 
raised. 

In the storage of water in order to determine the 
amount which can actually be conserved for useful pur- 
poses, it is necessary to ascertain the extent and the rate 
of evaporation under different conditions of latitude, 
altitude and general climate. Local condition, character 
of the soil, slope of the land, cultivation, humidity, evap- 
oration, precipitation, drainage, and capillary action 
are so widely at variance in different localities, that there 
is small hope of getting any formula which will admit of 
extended application. Crops differ with respect to mois- 
ture requirements. For example, oats and wheat will 
require more than rye and barley, and buckwheat, amber 
cane and corn still less than the other grains. 

In Colorado, water rights vested on a basis of the low 
duty assigned to water ten years ago have, in instances, 
deteriorated lands and reduced their productiveness by a 

108 



DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 109 

surfeit in application ; while on adjoining lands, through 
jni i'ii forced economy, a higher duty, better condition of 
the soil and greater productiveness have resulted. Un- 
skilled labor has a penalty of twenty-five to fifty per cent 
attached to it in the application of water, and unfortu- 
nately this class is too prevalent in the irrigating fields, 
in many cases no other being obtainable. An abundant 
water supply tends to carelessness in its application, and 
consequent waste. On the duty of water depends the 
financial success of every irrigation enterprise, for as 
water becomes scarce its value increases. In order to 
estimate the cost of irrigation in projecting works, it is 
essential to know how much water the land requires. In 
order to ascertain the dimensions of canals and reservoirs 
for the irrigation of given areas, the duty of water must 
be determined. 

Numerical Expression. Before considering the 
numerical expression of water duty the standard units 
of measurement should be defined. For bodies of stand- 
ing water, as in reservoirs, the standard unit is the cubic 
foot. In the consideration of large bodies of water, 
however, the cubic foot is too small a unit to handle 
conveniently and the acre foot is the unit employed by 
irrigation engineers. This is the amount of water which 
will cover one acre of hind one foot in depth, and that is 
43,560 cubic feet. In considering running streams, as 
rivers or canals, the expression of volume must be cou- 
pled with a factor representing the rate of movement. 
The time unit usually employed by irrigation engineers 
is the second, and the unit of measurement of flowing 
water is the cubic foot a second, or the second foot as it 
is called for brevity. Thus the number of second feet 
flowing in a canal is the number of cubic feet which 
passes a given point in a second of time. The cubic foot 
a second is the unit of measurement usually adopted in 
the distribution of water from or by the large canals of 



110 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Colorado. A quantity of water equivalent to a contin- 
uous flow o one cubic foot a second, during the irrigat- 
ing season of one hundred days, will usually irrigate 
from fifty to sixty acres of land. It will often do more 
than this. Another unit still generally employed in the 
West is the miners inch. This differs greatly in differ- 
ent localities and is generally defined by state statute. In 
California one second foot of water is equal to 50 miner's 
inches, while in Colorado it is equivalent to 38.4 miner's 
inches. In the following arrangement are given a few 
convertible units of measure : 

1 second foot=450 gallons a minute. 

1 cubic foot=:75 gallons a minute. 

1 second foot=2 acre feet in 24 hours approximated. 

100 California inehes=4 acre feet in 24 hours. 

100 Colorado iuches=5 1 , acre feet in 24 hours. 

1 Colorado inch=r!7,000 gallons in 24 hours. 

1 second foot=59Va acre feet in 30 days. 

2 acre feet=l second foot a day or .0333 second feet in 30 days. 

A miner's inch is supposed to define the quantity of 
water flowing through an aperture an inch square, but as 
in some parts the pressure adopted is that of a four-inch 
head, while in other places the head is six inches, there 
is evidently abundant room for variation, even in the 
determination of the capacity of a single inch. When 
again a number of inches came to be measured at once 
it became possible either to adopt an aperture one inch 
high and the specified number of inches in length, or to 
take the square of the whole number of inches as giving 
the dimensions of the orifice, in which case there is an- 
other great cause of variation. The State Engineer of 
Colorado has calculated that the miner's inch has been 
.026 cubic feet, or, roughly speaking, a fortieth of a 
cubic foot, which is equivalent to a flow of nearly nine 
gallons a minute, and this is now generally adopted, 
though as a matter of fact, in more southerly states 
where water has been scarce, the miner's inch has only 
meant one fiftieth of a cubic foot. 



DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. Ill 

An Irrigation Head. The proper wetting of the 
whole ground requires what is known as an irrigation 
head. To irrigate ten acres with a miner's inch of water 
needs from fifteen to thirty inches of flow at a time, de- 
pending upon the porosity of the soil. A single inch 
flowing constantly and used in that way would not irri- 
gate over two acres at the best and generally not over 
one-half an acre properly. But the flow of a single inch 
without any reservoir to accumulate it may be used in 
another way so as to produce fair results on from ten to 
forty acres, according to the nature of the soil, the 
amount of rainfall and the kind of trees for it is only 
for trees that it can be used to advantage. It would 
hardly pay to make trenches around grapevines on any 
large acreage, and although some berries, vegetables and 
other small stuff may be raised, it generally takes too 
much work and time to water a large area of them in 
that way. 

The farmer who sees a severe drouth broken by a 
three hours' flow of water hardly understands that every 
acre of his farm has received in an inch of irrigation no 
less than 100 tons of water, or 100 acres has had 10,000 
tons of water poured over it. The quantity of water on 
a single acre by such irrigation will be not less than 130 
cubic yards. A little wetting of this character places 
more than 1000 tons in twenty-four hours on every acre, 
or 100,000 tons on a 100-acre farm. Now an average 
irrigation requires a five-inch layer of water over an en- 
tire field, while some crops, oats for instance, often de- 
mand a solid covering of ten inches. When using wind- 
mill irrigation in a small way it may be well to roughly 
approximate an acre of garden or orchard as requiring 
1000 barrels of water for an ordinary wetting, but in this 
the greatest economy is necessary and it is best to apply 
the water by the rill or row method. The following fig- 
ures will give an idea of the amount of water necessary 



112 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

to properly irrigate a definite area of land in a humid 
climate, such as that of the Central and Eastern States. 
There are 0,272,640 square inches to an acre. One 
inch of water or a stream one inch wide and one inch 
deep, flowing at a rate of four miles an hour, will give 
0,082,500 inches in twenty-four hours. Such a stream 
will therefore cover nearly an acre one inch deep in 
twenty-four hours. This would require about 25,920 
gallons or 823 barrels of water. 

The California Standard. The most economic 
users of water, in America at least, are the Calif ornians. 
as their necessities are reduced on account of a limited 
water supply. At Kiverside they use an inch of water 
to five acres and some an inch to three acres. But this 
is because they charge to the land all the waste on the 
main ditch and because they use thirty per cent of the 
water in July and August when it is the lowest. But 
this is no test of the duty of water the amount actually 
delivered on the land should be taken. What they actu- 
ally use for ten acres at Eiverside, Redlands, etc, is a 
twenty-inch head of three days' run five times in the 
year, equal to 300 inches for one day, or one inch steady 
run for 300 days. As an inch is the equivalent of 365 
inches one day, or one inch for 365 days, 300 inches for 
one day equals an inch to twelve acres. Many use even 
less than this, running the water only two or two and 
one-half days at a time. Others use more head, but it 
rarely exceeds twenty-four inches for three days and five 
times a year, which would be seventy-two multiplied by 
five, or 360 inches, a little less than a full inch for a 
year for ten acres. In summing up, we may say that the 
duty of water in Southern California may be put at an 
average of one inch to eight acres, and the cost of water 
at a first charge of $35 to $60 an acre for the right, and 
a further charge of $1.50 to $2.50 an acre per annum 
for the water whether used or not. 



DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 113 

Evaporation. Throughout the arid region of the 
United States the conditions which determine the amount 
of evaporation are exceedingly variable, and it ranges 
from a probable minimum of 20 inches to a probable 
maximum of 105 inches per annum. If water, therefore, 
be stored in artificial lakes, where evaporation is but 20 
inches a year, a very small amount of water is thus lost, 
.but if it be stored where the evaporation reaches the 
amount of 100 inches a year the water loss is very great. 
It is to be remembered that in the actual application of 
water unnecessary slowness of flow induces increased 
evaporation and absorption, and hence it is that in the 
flooding system the quick head sharply applied gives the 
best results. 

On the average all cultivated plants will exhale each 
day a quantity of water equal to the dry growth of the 
plant for the .year. The time of growth varies from 
seventy-five to one hundred and fifty days, but in general 
the plant requires for good growth about one hundred 
times as much water as the yearly growth when dried. 
This is equal to eighteen inches in depth, which therefore 
may be called the absolute duty of water. To this must 
be added one-third for seepage and evaporation. But to 
calculate more readily the Colorado irrigators will usually 
estimate that twenty-one total acre inches are sufficient 
for a season's water supply for ordinary crops, and the 
writer is inclined to favor this estimate as being about 
right. 

The duty of water is constantly increasing in nearly 
every portion of the country where irrigation is practiced. 
To-day in Colorado some engineers and canal companies 
are making the standard of duty nearly double what it 
was formerly. But the crops grown, the system used 
and the means of applying water, all cut a very impor- 
tant figure. As we have already indicated, where flooding 
takes thousands of gallons the furrow system only re- 
8 



114 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

quires hundreds, aud sub-irrigation tens of gallons for a 
similar area. 

Measurement of Water. There are also many 
different standards of measurement of water for irrigat- 
ing, and so many different conditions under which it is 
applied, that one is apt to become confused and will decide 
that there is a good deal of technicality about it that is 
perplexing and intricate. As before stated the units of 
measurement are the miner's or statutory inch, cubic 
and acre feet, or by the gallon. With engineers the cubic 
foot per second is the standard unit, and the quantity is 
determined in large volumes by the rate of flow in the 
sectional area of the channel and in the smaller volumes 
by the flow over a measuring weir. The theoretical capac- 
ity of a channel as determined by formulas is almost 
always in excess of the actual capacity as determined by 
experiment, by a varying percentage dependent upon the 
following conditions : First Sinuosity or aggregate de- 
gree of curvature. Second Sharpness of bends or degree 
of curvature. Third The uniformity and symmetry of 
cross section. Fourth The character of the frictional 
perimeter of the sides and bottom. The simple theory of 
flowing water in channels is not a difficult matter of 
understanding, but it is the modification of this theory 
by the various co-efficients of friction that leads to mis- 
understanding. 

To properly estimate the flow of water in canals and 
its distribution through headgates a number of devices 
have been invented, and these include such things as nilo- 
meters, current meters, hydrometric sluices, division 
boxes, modules, weirs and water registers." A measur- 
ing device is not always necessary, especially where one 
has his own private water supply, but in taking water 
from public canals it is always more satisfactory to have 
an arrangement by which the actual intake of water 
may be determined. 



DllY A XI) MEASUREMENT OF W ATE It. 115 

A Miner's Inch. As before specified a miner's 
inch may vary considerably, as it is rated with a pressure 
of from four to six inches. We should say that a safe 
calculation may be made with a five-inch pressure as a 
HUM li tun of computation. A flow of water through such 
an inch aperture is called a miner's inch. To find the 
number of gallons in miner's inches, multiply the givm 
number of miner's inches by 14.061, pointing off five 
decimal places. The result gives the number of gallons 
discharge per second. To find the number of miner's 
inches in gallons, divide the number of gallons flow or 
discharge per minute by 8.97GG. The result will be the 
number of miner's inches sought. One miner's inch 
will flood ten acres a year 1.45 feet deep, 14.49 acres a 
year one foot deep, 18.11 acres a year nine inches deep. 
A continuous miner's inch will irrigate one acre of gar- 
den or orchard nicely. 

Divisors. It often occurs that in taking water 
from a ditch two consumers will use one sluiceway or 
box, in which event a divisor is required. In using a 
divisor there is no unit of measure and none is needed. 
In its most common form the divisor consists of a parti- 
tion dividing the channel into two portions in proportion 
to the respective claims. This, in effect, assumes that 
the velocity is uniform across the whole cross section, 
which is not the case even in a uniform channel, and is 
much less so in one irregular or in poor repair. Such a 
division is to the disadvantage of the smaller consumer. 
The nearer the velocity is uniform across the whole 
channel, the better this method of division. Accord- 
ingly, means are frequently taken, by weir-boards or 
otherwise, with this object in view, but generally with 
indifferent success. A screen would accomplish this 
one object better, but the objections to its use are too 
many in most places to render it practicable. Figure 39 
represents one of the most common forms of divisors. 



116 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



The partition board (.4) is movable, and may be placed 
at different distances from the side ((7), so that the user 
can vary the proportion of water which he receives. A 
cleat of some kind is often used to pre- 
vent the board from being moved beyond 
a certain limit. Where the ditch is 
wide and shallow there is sometimes a 
simple truss used with a depending 
cleat. Sometimes a wire or chain re- 
stricts the movement. In these cases 
it is usually assumed that the amount 
of water going to the side channel is 
in proportion to the distance the mov- 
able partition is from the side, and the 
ratio is the same to the distance across 
as the volume is to the volume in the 
whole ditch. 




FIG. 39. DIVISOR. 



Module or Measuring Boxes. The measuring 
box has for its object the proper apportionment of water 
to each consumer, so that he may depend upon receiving 
a definite quantity from the main ditch. The method 
of measurement gaining in favor in the West is by means 
of a hydrometric flume. One of the most ingenious and 
satisfactory for use on small distributaries is that in- 
vented by Mr. Foote. The chief fault of this apparatus 
is the fact that it measures water by the inch instead of 
by the second foot. This unit of graduation can of 
course be changed. Its merit consists in the circum- 
stance that it renders it possible to maintain very nearly 
a standard head, as shown in Figure 40. It consists of 
a flume placed in the main lateral (^4), and a side flu mo 
(B) in which is constructed the measuring gate, while 
opposite to it is a long overfall ((7), the hight of which 
is used as to maintain a standard head above the meas- 
uring slot. Such a weir is cheaply constructed and 
easily placed in position, and costs but a few dollars for a 



DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 



117 



small service head. It needs no oversight or su- 
pervision, as it can be locked until a change of volume 
is desired. The irrigator himself can with his pocket 
rule demonstrate to his entire satisfaction that he is 
getting the amount of water in inches for which he 
is paying. 

Weirs. To determine the flowing capacity of 
small streams, ditches or laterals the rectangular weir, 
such as is illustrated in Figure 41, may be employed, 




FIG. 40. FOOTE'S MEASURING FLUME. 

thanks to the ingenuity of James Leffel of Ohio. The 
illustration represents a weir dam across a small stream. 
When it is convenient to use a single board, as is shown 
in the sketch, one may be selected sufficiently long to 
reach across the stream, with each end resting on the 



DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 119 

bank. Cut a notcfli in the board sufficiently deep to 
all the water, and in length about two-thirds the 
width of the stream. The bottom of the notch (B) in 
the board, also the ends of the notch, should be beveled 
on the down-stream side, and within one-eighth of tin 
inch of the upper side of the board, leaving the edge 
almost sharp. A stake (E) should be driven in the bot- 
tom of the stream, several feet above the board, on a 
level with the notch (B) this level being easily found 
when, the water is beginning to spill over the board. 
After the water has come to a stand and reached its 
greatest depth, a careful measurement can be made of 
the depth of water over the top of stake (E), in the 
manner illustrated. Such measurement gives the true 
depth of water passing over the notch, because if meas- 
ured directly on the notch the curvature of water in 
passing would reduce the depth. The line D is a level 
from the bottom of the notch (B) to the top of the stake 
(E), while the dotted line C represents the top of the 
water, and the distance between the lines from the top of 
stake gives the true depth or spill over the weir-board. 
The lines in the sketch have the appearance of running 
over the top of the board, when in fact they pass behind 
it, but for the purpose of illustration the reader is sup- 
posed to look through the board and the post. The sur- 
face of the water below the board should not be nearer 
the notch (B} than ten inches, that the flow will not be 
impeded. Neither should the nature of the channel 
above the board be such as to force or hurry the 
water to the board, but should be of ample width 
and depth to allow the water to approach the board 
quietly. If the water passes the channel rapidly it 
will be forced over the weir and a larger quantity will 
pass than if allowed to spill from a large body moving 
slowly 



120 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



Weir Table. The following table may be of st-rv- 
ice where the delivery is such that it can be measured 
over a rectangular weir, as described under the foregoing 
caption. 



THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. 



u <-i""-X 


Depth. 


Miner's 
inches. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
inches. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
indies. 


1/8 


.01 


37/ 8 


2.56 


7% 


7.04 


123/4 


1527 


V4 


.04 


4 2.69 


73/4 


7.22 


13 


15.72 




."7 


4V8 2.81 


7T/8 


740 


13V4 


1618 


i/a 


.12 


4V4 2.93 


8 


7.58 


131/2 




" ^ 


.17 


4 - ; 3.07 


81/8 


7.76 




17.10 


8,4 


.22 


4'-j 3.19 


81/4 


7.!K5 


14 


17 ."7 


% 


.1'7 


4-Vs 3.33 




8.12 


14V4 


18.04 


1 


.;;;; 


4" 4 347 


8V 2 


8.30 


14V2 


1S..VJ 


11/8 


.39 


47/8 3.61 




8.48 


143/4 


1900 


1V4 


.4; 


5 


3.75 






16 


19. 4* 


13/8 


.54 


51/8 


3.89 


8 7/ 8 


886 


r- 1 4 


IJtlig 


11/2 


.(,2 


514 


4.03 


9 


9.06 


i.v._. 


20.47 




.til) 


53/8 


4.18 


9V8 


^;{ 




20.: 7 


13/4 


.77 


~i ' > 


4.32 


9V4 


9.42 


16 


21 .47 


17/8 


.86 




4.47 


9% 


9.62 


16V2 


22 47 ' 


2 


.IT, 


53/4 


4.62 


'i i ., 


9.81 


17 


23.60 


21/8 


1.04 


5T/8 


4.77 


9% 


10 (M) 


17V 2 


24.54 


^ 1 , 


1.13 


6 


4.92 


93/i 


10.19 


18 




^ :; s 


1 .22 


<;i M 


5.08 


9% 


10.38 




26.65 


2V2 


1 .'52 




6.24 


10 




I-.' 


_'7.74 


25/8 


1.42 


!! ' 


.">.:;! 


10V4 


10.99 


l: '_ 


28.83 


23,4 


1.62 


I ; i ._> 


6.64 


10V2 


11 :5: 


20 


29.96 


27/8 


1.63 


i .". ,, 


5.71 


1034 


11 so 


jn ' .. 


31. '7 


3 


1.74 
1.86 




5.87 
(i.04 


n 

n ; i 


1J.-J2 
12.66 


2l" 

-'1 ' - 


32.21 

33.36 


3i/f 


1.97 


7 


6.20 


1 1 ' _ 


13.06 


_ 


34/2 


33/8 


2. os 


71/8 


(i ;;7 


11% 


13.60 


'_'- ' 


3. r >.70 




2 1!> 


7V4 


6.: 3 


]' i:i'4 


j"; 


36.90 




2.31 


7% 


6.70 


I2ji I4.:;s 


23V> 


88.M 


33/4 


249 


7% 


ti>7 




24 


39^2 



To use the table measure the depth of water in 
inches over the weir. From the depth so measured find 
in the table the miner's inches flowing for each inch of 
width in the weir opening. The width of the weir open- 
ing in inches multiplied by miner's inches in the table 
gives the miner's inches flowing over the weir. Multiply 
the miner's inches by .02 to obtain the cubic feet a sec- 
ond or .04 for the acre feet a day, or by 0.5 for the acre 
inches a day, or by 4 for the acre feet in 100 days, or by 
9 for the gallons a minute. 

Gauging Large Streams. Frequently it is im- 
possible to construct even a temporary weir on account 
of the large quantity of water the stream carries. Meas- 



DUTY A>sD MKASL'KEMENT OF WATER. 121 

urement must therefore be made by other methods, one 
of the simplest of which is to ascertain the mean velocity 
of the stream in feet per minute. Next ascertain the 
area or cross section of the stream in square feet. Hav- 
ing learned these two quantities their product will give 
the required amount afforded by the stream. The ve- 
locity can be estimated by throwing floating bodies into 
the stream, these bodies having nearly the same specific 
gravity or weight as the water. The time of their pas- 
sage can be accurately rated in passing a given distance ; 
it must be remembered, however, that the velocity is 
the greatest in the center of the stream and near the sur- 
face, and that it is least near the bottom and sides. It 
is usually best to ascertain the velocity at the center, and 
from this the mean velocity can be estimated, as it has 
been accurately and reliably ascertained by experiments 
that the actual mean velocity will be 83 per cent, or 
about four-fifths of the velocity of the surface. The 
cross section may be estimated by measuring the depth 
of the stream at a number of points at equal distances 
apart, the depth being measured at each of these points 
and all of these added together, and multiplying their 
sum by the distance in feet between any two of the points. 
In driving these stakes or points, the first one o'n each 
side should be half the distance from the edgs of the 
water to the stake that any one of the other spaces will 
measure, the two end or half spaces together amounting 
to one whole space. Having obtained the cross section of 
the stream in square feet, and also the mean velocity of 
the stream in feet per minute, the product of these two 
gives the quantity of water that the stream affords in 
cubic feet per minute. 

The Current Meter. The current meter now 
GO generally used to ascertain with precision the velocity 
of currents in rivers, irrigating canals and smaller 
streams, gives the moan velocity of a given filament of 



122 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



the stream of any required length. A float observation 
gives only the velocity of a given small volume of water 
which surrounds the float, and as different portions of 
the small filament have very different longitudinal ve- 
locities, it requires a great many float observations to 
give as valuable information as may be obtained by run- 
ning a current meter in the same filament for one minute. 
The current meter method is the most accurate of ob- 
taining sub-surface velocities ever yet devised. The 

river current meter used 
on the geological sur- 
veys in the West by the 
United States govern- 
ment surveyors is the 
invention of J. S. J. 
Lallie, who manufac- 
tures them in Denver, 
and is shown in Fig- 
ure 42. 

In order to ascer- 
tain the velocity of a 
stream or ditch, lock 
the gears in the meter 
and note reading at 
the pointers, which will be the first reading. Place the 
meter in the stream or ditch and at the same instant the 
gears are unlocked start a stop-watch. Then the meter 
should be slowly moved from the top to the bottom of 
the stream at least three times. At the end of these 
movements the gears are locked, the watch stopped and 
the second reading is made, and these together with the 
time noted down. The difference between the first and 
second ivadin^ i.s divided by the time which gives the 
revolutions per second. The revolutions per second mul- 
tiplied by the ratio will give the velocity of the stream 
in feet per second. In the computations the following for- 




DUTY AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 123 

mulu is used : Total number of revolutions divided by 
the time equals the revolutions per second. Total dis- 
tance divided by the time equals the velocity in feet per 
second which the meter moves through the water. Ve- 
locity in feet per second divided by the number of revo- 
lutions per second equals the ratio. 

The Water Register. This is a device used in 
measuring the water that flows in specified currents suc'h 
as rivers, canals or flumes. Figure 43 gives a very good 
idea of its mechanism. 




FIG. 43. WATER REGISTER. 

It consists of a dial divided circumferentially into 
spaces corresponding to the days of the week and the 
hours and minutes of the day. Beginning at the cir- 
cumference and going toward the center of the dial it is 
divided into a scale of feet and inches. The dial is 
turned by clockwork, making one revolution in seven 
days. Pressing against the dial is a pen filled with a 
specially prepared ink which does not dry in the pen. 



124 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

This pen is one of two arms attached to a revolvable 
shaft, the other arm being in the form of a segment of a 
gear. This segment meshes with a small pinion secured 
to a shaft carrying a grooved pulley. Over the grooved 
pulley a cord is passed, carrying at one end a float which 
rests upon the water to be measured, and at the other end 
a weight -which nearly counterbalances the float, keep- 
ing the cord tight. As the water rises and falls the float 
rises and falls with it. This fluctuation causes the cord 
to revolve the grooved pulley over which it passes ; the 
small pinion being fixed on the same shaft as the pulley 
revolves with it, communicating its motion to the seg- 
mental gear, which being attached to the same shaft as 
the pen, both will revolve together; and the pen, being 
in contact with the dial, will trace a mark upon it, leav- 
ing a graphical record showing the days, hours and min- 
utes in one direction, and feet and inches in another. 

A California Weir System. It often happens 
that there is great trouble in a canal system in dividing 
the water equitably among a number of irrigators, patrons 
of the ditch. Consumers are expected to bear their pro- 
portion of loss by seepage and evaporation between the 
head of the main canal and their respective gates. This 
loss is a varying one, being so great on a hot day that if 
each gate is set to take its quota without shrinkage, the 
man at the end of the system seldom has enough water 
to drink. The West Highlands water company in San 
Bernardino county put in a system of weirs which will 
completely avoid this difficulty. Their main ditch is one 
mile in length, with six lateral branches, each the same 
length. At the head of the first lateral the ditch ex- 
pands into a large cemented basin having two outlets, 
one opening into the main, the other into the lateral. 
In each opjning is set an iron irate of ample width and 
night, and having a sliding door which may be opened 
side wise to any given width and fastened at that point. 



DUTY AXl) MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 



125 



Both gates are exactly on a level. The weir at the he;id 
of each succeeding lateral is an exact duplicate. Five 
weirs suffice for the six branches, the fifth one serving 
for two, being at the last point of the division. The dis- 
tribution of the water is so arranged that but one con- 
sumer has water in a certain lateral at a time. Under 
this arrangement the zanjero or ditch walker, starting at 
the head of the main line with say six hundred inches of 
water to be divided equally among the six laterals, goes 
to the first weir and sets the gates in the ratio of five for 
the main to one for the lateral, and so on, the gates in 
the last weir being set equally open. Measurements to 
ascertain the amount of water are made on the open weir 
basis. Under this arrangement it will be seen that any 
decrease and likewise any increase in the flow is equitably 
divided among all parties on the system. 

Capacity of Pipes. To give a comprehensible 
exhibit of pipe capacity and discharge, the following table 
has been compiled : 

CARRYING CAPACITY GALLONS PER MINUTE. 





-^ 


- 


-_; 


- - 


- 


- J 


_ . 


_ . 


Size of pipe. 


^8 




""8 


28 


-1 


p 


rs 


rt^ 

7 




= 

~- ~* 


1* 


5| 

co 


y 


!* 


5* 


'- 8 

c? A 


< <u 

P- 


3 inch 


13 


19 


23 


32 


40 


46 


64 


79 


4 


27 


38 


47 


66 


81 


93 


131 


163 


6 


75 


105 


129 


183 


224 


258 


364 


450 


g 


153 


216 


265 


375 


460 


527 


750 


923 


9 


205 


2!K) 


a r >5 


503 


617 


712 


1,006 


1,240 


10 


267 


378 


463 


655 


803 


926 


1,310 


1.613 


12 


422 


596 


730 


1,033 


1,273 


1,468 


- 2.07(5 


2.554 


15 


740 


1,021 


1,282 


1,818 


2,224 


2,464 


3,617 


4.4<>7 


18 


1,168 


1.651 


2,022 


2,860 


3,508 


4,045 


5,704 


7.047 


24 


2,396 


3,387 


4,155 


5,874 


7,202 


8,303 


11.744 


14.4C6 


30 


4,187 


5,920 


7.252 


10,557 


12,580 


14,504 


20,516 


25,277 



Some Simple Rules. A miner's inch of water is 
equal to nine gallons a minute. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capac- 
ity four times. 

A cubic foot flowing a second of time is equal to 50 
miner's inches, or 450 gallons a minute. 



120 IRRIGATION FAKMIXU. 

A cubic foot of fresh \vatur weighs G2.5 pounds and 
contains 1,728 inches or 7.5 gallons. 

27,14-4 gallons of water will cover one acre one inch 
deep. 

'.' 2~> gallons a minute or 25 miner's inches will be 
sufficient to cover one acre one inch deep in two hours 
and one minute. 

A simple method to determine what a windmill 
pump is discharging is to measure the actual dclivcry 
wich a gallon measure for one minute and multiply by 
sixty. Divide the gallons per hour by 38 to obtain the 
acre inches per month, or by 13 for the acre inches in 
three months. These results arc not mathematically 
accurate, but will be found close enough for ordinary 
computations. They make no allowance for seepage and 
evaporation. 

A safe rule for finding the capacity of a cylindrical 
cistern is to take the dimensions in inches, square the 
diameter, multiply by the depth, and then by .0034, 
which will give the contents in United States standard 
gallons. Thus to find the capacity of a cistern twenty- 
five feet in diameter and one foot deep, multiply : 300 
x 12 x .0034=3672 United States standard gallons. 

To measure flowing water in ditches, canals and 
rivers, multiply the area by the mean velocity of its flow 
in feet per second, and the product is the volume in 
cubic feet; divide the number of cubic feet by 1.57, and 
the result will be the number of miner's inches. 



CHAPTER XI. 

METHODS OF APPLYING WATER. 

The methods of irrigation in vogue are as varied ;is 
the topography of the country. So much depends u\fim 
the proper application of water that the practice of irri- 
gation often results in failure unless it has received care- 
ful consideration and study. The amount of water a 
crop should receive, the time in its development to ob- 
tain the best results, the methods of applying water to 
different crops, together with that skill in accurate and 
economical manipulation which comes through practice 
and experience, are some of the important considerations. 

It has been found that practically a 70 per cent satu- 
ration of the soil will give the best results. Speaking in 
a broad way, a soil will retain its own bulk not its own 
weight of water, some soils more and some soils less. 
Now if fully saturated, and wheat, rye, orchards and 
vineyards are planted, they will not grow. But if the 
soil is given 70 per cent of the water which it can take 
up, so that there is circulation of water and air within 
the soil, then the plants can take their almost infinitesi- 
mal drinks of water and grow with the greatest rapidity. 
The soil carries this water up to the plant and the plant 
uses a part of it and evaporates it into the air. 

Evenness of distribution is important. For instance, 
if there is twice the amount of water on one place that 
there is in another, the ground will dry unevenly, and 
the dry patches will be too dry before the wet spots are 
dry enough to plow, for in irrigating orchards, or any 
crop that requires cultivation, the plow or cultivator 

127 



.METHODS OF APPLYING WATER. 129 

must follow as soon us the ground is in good working 
order. A bird's-eye view of a well-planned irrigated 
farm is given in Figure 44. It will be observed that the 
land lies on a gentle slope over which water may be 
spread with easy gradient and in equal ratio to all por- 
tions. The various plats may or may not be fenced, ac- 
cording to the owner's judgment-, and in most cases 
fences are obsolete except for pasturage. 

In the use of water it may be estimated that 1000 
gallons of water a minute will irrigate an acre an hour 
of row crops, such as potatoes, corn, etc., and it requires 
two men to handle this amount of water properly, as it 
is equal to ninety miner's inches. An inch of water 
nominally will cover an acre of land. The cost of irri- 
gating an acre will vary all the way from 75 cents to 
-$1.50 for a season of 100 days. Water rates in Colorado, 
where water is rented, are usually $1.50 an acre per annum, 
and this rate is fixed by the county commissioners. It 
is a good rule, in the arid region at least, to have the 
water running constantly on some portion of the farm, 
although this is not an inflexible rule on account of the 
wastefulness which it entails. Old irrigators never shut 
off the water when a shower comes up. In all irrigating 
work it is well to imitate nature as nearly as we can. It 
will be well to remember in this connection that the soil 
must be adapted to the way, which on the other hand is 
itself not adapted to all soils. 

Subsidiary Canals. Where the supply canal is 
large and the banks thick, it is well to divert the water 
from it in only one place. A shallow subsidiary canal may 
be made parallel with it, into which sufficient water is 
allowed to flow to supply the laterals. It is very easy 
for a stream to get beyond the control of the irrigator, 
and he must watch the aperture in the canal bank 
closely and take measures to prevent this. In the most 
primitive forms of irrigation the shovel is relied upon 
9 



130 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



entirely for regulating the flow of water; but a step 
in advance is made by putting in wooden boxes at 
such places, with a simple gate board sliding between 
upright cleats. In this way the exact quantity of water 
desired may be diverted, without danger that too much 
will force its way through. One advantage of these 
subsidiary canals is that ifc catches up the leakage of 
the main canal and utilizes it for immediate use, and 
at the same time avoids the discomfitures of seepage 




FI<;. 43. LATKKAL lil/LKIIKAI). 

waters on the lands to be irrigated. Sometimes these 
secondary canals are cemented, and they are useful 
in governing the water for the furrows by means of 
bulkheads. These bulkheads may best be fixed perma- 
nently in position, and if supplied with sluice gates tin-\ 
are ready for use at all times, and will last for years. "Fix 
these boxes in the lower bank of the subsidiary ditch at 
the head of the laterals and they may also be used in 



METHODS OF Al'IMAING WAT1IIJ. lol 

the laterals for the furrows just as well. A very good 
arrangement of this sort is described in Figure 45. 

Preparation of Land. Little inequalities in the 
surface of a field give the irrigator more trouble in the 
flooding' system than do large hills. They are too small to 
have any provision made for them except such as may 
be extemporized with the shovel while the water is run- 
ning. When the surface can all be brought to an even 
grade, work is greatly lessened, water is economized and 
the spotted appearance of the crop is avoided. Grading 
fields on any large scale has hitherto been impracticable 
because no machine was made specially adapted to it. 
One now invented and manufactured by B. F. Shuart, 

of Oberlin, Ohio, 
solves the problem. 
A good idea of this 
land levcler is 
gained from Fig- 
ure 46. 

Hesper Farm 
near Billings, Mon- 
*- tana, on which this 

FIG. 46. IMPROVED STEEL LAND GRADER. niacllinC WaS first 

put to service, was graded by it so perfectly that the 
water when turned from the ditch spreads over the sur- 
face by the mere force of gravity, with a uniformity of 
effect which reduces the task of irrigation almost to rec- 
reation. On this farm one man handles 250 inches of 
water and has time to spare. Grading land practically 
dispenses with the incessant and exhaustive use of the 
shovel, incident to irrigating under ordinary conditions. 
On a well-graded f arm w the irrigator in applying the 
water has little need of his shovel, except for opening 
and closing again the banks of the ditches where he 
turns out the water. The even grade also makes it pos- 
sible to run the water farther, and thus reduces the num- 




132 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

her of laterals necessary, and increases the head of water 
which can be used to advantage. Fifty inches is the 
head ordinarily used on Hesper Farm. With this ma- 
chine one man with a team can grade from three to five 
acres a day on an average. 

The laterals should be carried to the highest van- 
tage ground possible and should be opened at convenient 
points to allow the water to pass out upon the ground, 
and in this way it covers the field in seeking its level. 
The method of making laterals, especially as to the ne- 
cessity of having them raised above the natural level of 
the ground, is described in Chapter VI. 

Time to Irrigate. Generally all ditches in the 
temperate zone should be ready to receive water by the 
20th of May. The first water is turned upon the pas- 
ture, meadow, or orchard, just as it may be required. 
One year in the twenty that we have farmed in Colorado 
we commenced on the 24th day of May to irrigate, to ger- 
minate the grain that had been sown. We irrigated three 
times that season. We commence generally from the 
10th to the 25th of June to irrigate the small grain crop. 
The matter of leaving water turned on is regulated 
largely by the condition of the soil. While some land 
will soak full of water in from ten to twenty minutes, 
another kind of soil may require as long again to soak. 
We turn the water on and let it stay until the ground is 
thoroughly wet and soft as deep as it was plowed, eight 
to ten inches, then the water is let out of the ditch a 
little further on, and so on until the field is all irrigated. 

Every crop tells when it wants water. The grasses, 
clovers and small grains have a language that cannot be 
mistaken. Whenever their green color becomes very 
dark and sickly turn on the water. When corn wants 
water it tells the fact by its leaves being curled up in the 
morning. Salsify needs but little if any water after it is 
well under way. Carrots cannot bear an irrigation by 



METHODS OF APPLYING WA.TEE. 133 

flooding after they are half grown. If covered with 
water the crowns decay. All species of the cabbage 
family require a good deal of water. In other words tlu-y 
like wet feet and are very particular how the water is ap- 
plied. All plants in a dry climate should be pushed in their 
early stages of growth by a judicious application of the 
proper amount of water and frequent cultivations, at no 
time letting them stand, or go back from want of water 
and proper attention. Plants in general need much less 
water than is usually applied by almost everyone. They 
do far better and suffer much less with two inches on 
the surface applied two or three times during their growth 
than they do with twelve inches on the surface applied 
five or six times in a season. It is a sad mistake to put 
on too much water. 

The determination of the proper time to irrigate and 
the amount of water to apply must lie for the most part 
with the farmer himself. The humidity or dryness of 
the atmosphere, as well as the position and condition of 
the soil, are to be well considered, and common sense is a 
better guide than is philosophy. If trees are allowed to 
get too dry the sap of the stalk commences flowing back 
to the roots, accompanied by falling of the leaves, and 
water is often turned on too late to save them. On the 
other hand, if too much water is applied it stimulates a 
too rapid growth, and the probability is that if not cut 
back and thoroughly hardened in the fall, they will be 
found in the spring to be entirely dead, or standing sim- 
ply an outside live shell with a black and dead heart. 
Anyone can easily learn just about the degree of moisture 
in soil necessary for the healthy growth of a plant, and 
the nearer uniform the condition of -the moisture the 
more vigorous and healthy will be the plant. 

The best time to irrigate is early in the morning be- 
fore the sun acquires very great power, or in the evening 
when it is about to go below the horizon. A good time 



134 IRRIGATION 'FARMING. 

to water land is when a cloud comes np and a shower is 
expected. In nine cases out of ten the shower does not 
give all the water needed, so the work will not be useless- 
ly expended. Irrigation should not be done in the open 
when the sun is shining hot, as there is great danger of 
scalding the plants. If we have a good head of water in 
the ditch we prefer to begin irrigating at four o'clock in 
the afternoon, and often keep up the work as late as mid- 
night, especially on moonlight nights. At the Utah sta- 
tion the temperature of plats irrigated nights was slight- 
ly higher than those irrigated days. The yield of grain 
was slightly greater on the plat irrigated in the day time, 
due probably to the checking of the growth of the foliage. 
The total yield, or the yield of straw and grain, was some 
fifteen per cent greater on the plats irrigated at night, 
and the ratio of straw to wheat was therefore much 
greater on the plat irrigated at night. Straw to bushel 
of grain when irrigated nights, 120 pounds ; when irri- 
gated days, eighty-nine pounds. 

The Flooding System. As already mentioned 
the land must be prepared and made as near even as pos- 
sible, by scraping down the knolls and filling up the low 
places so that the water will spread evenly. If it does 
not spread in this way the irrigator must follow it out 
with his shovel and conduct it to the neglected spots. 
The application of water to crops by 'the method of 
flooding is the quickest and cheapest, and hence is almost 
universally used for grass, meadows and grain crops. On 
those soils which bake and crack badly flooding is injuri- 

unless the plants stand close enough together to 
shade the ground well. Water coming directly against 
tin- crown is unfavorable to the growth of many plants. 
It has often been noticed that millet, rye, oats and other 
crops will be larger and more thrifty a short distance 
from a ditch bank, where they rcrriu- all their moist mv 
by seepage, than they will farther out in the field, where 



METHODS OF APPLYING WATER. 



135 



irrigated by flooding though kept sufficiently moist. 
Most generally in the spreading of water over farms par- 
ticularly those that have not been properly graded as de- 
scribed plow furrows are run diagonally across fields, 
as outlined in Figure 47. This system is the most prac- 
ticable to use in flooding land. The furrows which dis- 
tribute the water are run in such direction, required by 




FIG. 47. "DIAGONAL PLOW FURROWS ACROSS A FIELD. 

the lay of the land, as will give them only a slight descent. 
A hoeful or shovelful of earth thrown in the furrows at 
the entrance keeps them closed. When the land needs 
water the little gate or sliding board at the canals is 
raised as far as needed to let in the required amount of 
water. This is raised or lowered as may be necessary 
in the course of irrigating a field. 



13G IRRIGATIOn FARMING. 

The lateral being filled with water, the irrigator 
opens the upper ends of the plow farrows by taking out 
a shovelful of earth. The little furrows then become 
filled. The water seeping through or running over the 
sides gently trickles along over the surface and soaks 
into the ground. Flowing thus from each side the 
waters soon unite between the furrows and thus the 
moisture becomes uniform and general. The farmer 
may remove all obstructions by clipping off a bit of dirt 
at intervals from the sides of the furrows, and flood his 
land till the water will everywhere cover the surface. In 
this way he can in an hour or two give an entire farm 
what would be equal to a heavy soaking rain. These 
floodings are often given about the heading-out time and 
the result is the production of heavier and more perfect 
grain. The water should be put on as rapidly as possi- 
ble with no let-up the quicker the better. It should 
not be allowed to stand in pools anywhere, because 
standing water stops all the pores in the soil, cutting off 
the air from the roots and, as it were, taking the life 
out of them for some time. Flooding requires more 
water than many other methods, but at the same time 
much less labor is needed, and it may be called the lazy 
man's system. 

Furrow or Rill System. It is best to irrigate 
gardens and orchards by the furrow method. An even 
greater difference comparatively in the quantity of water 
used obtains in the furrow irrigation of fruit trees and 
vines than in the case of cereals. To such an extent 
does this prevail that not only do districts differ, but, of 
two neighbors who cultivate the same fruits in contigu- 
ous orchards, having exactly the same slope and soil, 
one will use twice or thrice as much water as the other. 
Judging as far as possible from conflicting testimonies, 
the cardinal principle appears to be just tin- same. 
As we have endeavored to show, it is desirable to 



Ml- I HODS OF APPLYING WATEH. 



have the lateral taken out of the main canal at a point 
higher than the grade of the ground to be irrigated. A 
practical example of this diversion of water is to be seen 
in Figure 48, where a distributing gate diverts the canal 
water through a lateral to the furrows of an orchard. 
In garden and orchard work the character of the furrow 
is orovenie.l largely by circumstances, and the kind of 



.y"**"*%*^S6S*2iacAi(r~^~*'* "-^-Vi/ /-^_-.rr--V*^rirc"T^^L" r ' v ' ' ' 

a&wC% 




FIG. 48. DISTRIBUTING GATES OF IRRIGATION CANAL. 

planting will largely govern one's actions in laying out 
furrows. From a general head furrow smaller ones are 
run at right or obtuse angles into the plantation. A 
grade of one inch to the rod is usually sufficient, and an 
orchard should be set with this end in view. In 
the West we prefer to have the trees set closest together 
in the north and south rows, so that one tree shades 



MKTIIODS OF APPLYING WATKK. 139 

another from the two o'clock sun, which in winter espe- 
cially is very damaging to young trees. Always set 
orchard or small fruit rows to conform to the proper 
irrigating grade, as this precaution will save much suit- 
sequent trouble. 

A new furrow in orchards or vineyards should be 
plowed every time an irrigation is to occur, for the 
closely following cultivation which is the most important 
part of this work will close over and obliterate the fur- 
rows. Make a furrow on each side of the trees and give 
an irrigation that is calculated to carry the water well 
down into the soil lower than the roots if possible, and 
for this reason the writer advises sub-soiling before the 
planting is done. The first year after planting, the rill 
may be run within a foot of the trees, but the water 
should never be allowed to touch the trunks. Some 
horticulturists set out small fruits in rows four or n . 
feet apart longitudinally with the trees, while others 
put such plants as raspberries and blackberries in the 
tree rows themselves. The advantage of the latter plan 
is that it affords more shade to the cane fruits, but at the 
same time they are more apt to receive less water than 
they need, as cane fruits require more water than is given 
to trees. By planting in the open between the tree rows 
cane fruits may be irrigated more frequently, and this 
can be done independently of the trees themselves. 

As trees grow older year by year their furrows 
should be carried farther away from the trunks, a good 
rule being to keep them in a vertical line with the outer 
tips of the branches. With full-grown trees the irrigat- 
ing should be done with several parallel intermediary 
rills, as pictured in Figure 49. 

This system is much in use in the citrus groves of 
Southern California. When the orchard is steep then 
plant, not in straight rows, but lay out ditches with a 
fall of one-quarter of an inch to every rod, and plant the 



140 



IHKIGATIOX FARMING. 



trees along the ditches on the lower side. Professor 
Blount of New Mexico lays out his orchards on a grnxle 
of one inch to one hundred feet east and west, and on a 
level north and south. He admits water at the north- 
west corner of his quincunx plantation, and by double 
furrows his trees are irrigated on all sides, as displayed 
in Figure 50, and by which means his rootlets are uni- 
formly watered. 




FIG. 50. DOUBLE FURROW ORCHARD SYSTEM. 

In all furrow operations it is best to allow the water 
to trickle gently through them until the land is well 
moistened at a spade's depth between the furrows. Be- 
fore allowing to dry, hoe back the earth into the furrows, 
and cultivate as soon as the land will admit. By irrigat- 
ing in this way evaporation will be reduced, water will 
be economized, the earth will be moistened to a depth of 
at least two feet, and one irrigation of this kind will last 
as long as two or three by flooding. 



METHODS OF APPLYING WATER. 141 

Underground Flumes and Stand Pipes. In 
Southern California, where water is scarce and most eco- 
nomically applied, the preferred orchard system is that 
of the underground lateral to convey the water to the 
place of its application. The scheme is to have the 
water delivered by underground cement or iron pipes at 
the highest point of each ten-acre lot. This delivery is 
ordinarily made by a cement hydrant or pipe, opening 
into a flume made of wood, brick or vitrified pipe, extend- 
ing entirely across the plot to be irrigated. If it be trees 
or vines that are to be irrigated, there will be from two 
to eight furrows plowed between the rows at right. angles 




FIG. 51. SECTION OF VITRIFIED HEAD DITCH. 

with the flume and extending in the same direction with 
the grade of the land. Flumes made of redwood either 
V-shaped or square are largely used, and opposite each 
furrow and opening directly into it an auger hole in the 
plank is bored, which is covered with a galvanized iron 
gate set in a slide, the whole thing being cheaply pro- 
vided but very effective. 

The water having been turned into a flume from the 
hydrant, the slides over the apertures are adjusted so as 
to allow exactly the amount to escape that is desired. 
Slow saturation is the desideratum rather than sudden 
flooding, and by using these gates the flow may be ad- 
justed to a nicety and the water then left to itself, no 



142 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

watching being necessary, and no constant labor with the 
shovel, as when water is applied from open ditcho. 
Sometimes a substantial flume of brick is laid in place of 
one of wood, and a square vitrified pipe with openings 
in the side is also highly thought of. A section of this 
terra cotta head ditch is presented in Figure 51. 

Into this flume is turned from the ditch an irrigat- 
ing head of 20, 25 or 30 inches of water, generally about 
20 inches. This is divided by the holes into streams of 
from one-sixth to one-tenth of an inch, making from 120 
to 200 streams. These are run across the tract in small 
furrows leading from each hole. From five to seven fur- 
rows are made between two rows of trees, two between 
rows of grapes, one furrow between rows of corn, pota- 
toes, etc. It may take from fifteen to twenty hours for 
one stream to get across the tract. They are allowed to 
run from eighteen to "seventy-two hours. The ground is 
thoroughly wet in all directions and oftentimes three or 
four feet deep. As soon as the ground is dry enough, 
cultivation is begun and kept up from six to eight wei-ks 
before water is used again. For trees a year old one fur- 
row on each side of the row will do, for two years old 
two furrows, and so on. 

In many places the outlet from the underground 
head flume is through a series of stand pipes. An im- 
proved measuring penstock consists of a four-inch iron 
.st and pipe resting on a six-inch vitrified service pipe. 
At the summit of this measuring standpipe is a sliding 
gate on which is a scale so arranged that the amount of 
water flowing through it can be measured by simply read- 
ing the scale. A valve inside the standpipe is operated 
by a screw attachment and admits the proper amount of 
water, while it can be locked by a simple device. Out- 
side the standpipe is a pressure gauge which shows the 
head of water on a measuring slot with a glass face. 
This contrivance is used in measuring the patron's appor- 



.Mi:TH"l>S OK APPLYING NVA'J KU. 



143 



tionmont of water, and in this fact alone does it po 
any advantage* OUT tin.' simple opening in the head flume 
for the escape of water. 

The Basin System. This method consists in 
making a small ba.-in around trees, filling it two, three or 
more times with water as fast as it soaks away. These 
liusins vary in size according to the amount of water one 
has. Where the supply is small they are often not more 
than two feet across, and even smaller for young trees. 
WJierc there is more water, many make them 10, 12 and 




FIG, 52. THE BASIN SYSTEM. 

even 15 feet across. Some make them square, others 
round, while others make them oval or rectangular. 
The plan is well shown up in Figure 52. 

In many cases the formation of these basins is very 
stupid. That trees treated in this way do anything, only 
proves that they would do better in other ways, and does 
not prove that such is the correct way to irrigate them. 
For instance, allowing the water to touch the trunk of a 
tree is -radically wrong. In the center of the basin 



144 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

should be left a mound of dry soil around the trunk ot 
the tree, at least two feet in diameter, and three or more 
would be better. Instead of heaping up earth on the 
lower side and making a pond of water, of which the 
pressure will puddle the bottom and prevent the access of 
air to the roots, by covering it with a hard, tight crust, 
the basins should be made in the form of concentric rings ; 
or, where the hill is too steep in crescents, one above the 
other, and leading one into the other. The basins may 
be filled by hose, watering carts or by pipes, but the 
writer considers the plan scarcely worthy of adoption. 

Another plan to convey water to the roots of trees 
is to set a length of sewer pipe, or a two-foot box six or 
eight inches square, into the ground two or three feet 
from the trunk. Into this box water is poured until it 
is filled, or it may be conveyed in a hose and allowed to 
run for sometime, so as to give the roots a good soaking. 
It is better to have three or four of these boxes placed 
Around a tree so as to distribute the water more evenly 
in the ground. This contrivance is seen along village 
streets where shade trees are grown. 

Borders or Checks. This is a cumbersome 
method of field irrigation in practice by Mexican farm- 
ers, but which is gradually going out of use. Each bor- 
der includes a few rods only, and the borders are from 
six to twelve inches high, which would indeed interfere 
sadly with the use of machinery. The plats are filled 
with water, which is quickly run off from one to the 
other after a thorough saturation of the soil. If, how- 
ever, the land is well leveled, five or ten acre patches in- 
stead of a few square rods may be enclosed with borders 
or ridges, which would be the improved American plan 
"ii a Mexican basis. These acres can be enclosed with 
borders made in such a way as not to interfere with im- 

'nts. The borders can be made into gentle swells, 
eight, ten, or twelve inches in the center, and the 



METHODS OF APPLYIXG WATER. 



145 



twenty feet. The object is to secure quick and thorough 
irrigation. Some have called it the checkerboard sys- 
tem, but it is the only one that native farmers know, 
and those crops that they attempt to grow are indeed 
very prolific. 

Sprinkling. In Florida most of the irrigation is 
of the sprinkling order and is best described by George 
\Y. Adams, of Thonotosassa, who says: "I have a 
twenty-five horse power horizontal boiler and a 12x7x10 
duplex pump, with six-inch main pipe and three-inch 
laterals at the main and running down to one and a half 




FIG. 53. IRRIGATING WITH A HOSE. 

at extreme ends. My trees are twenty-one feet apart 
each way. I have a hydrant in the center of every six- 
teen trees. I use the McGowan automatic sprinklers, 
connecting the sprinkler with hydrants by a one-inch 
wire-wound rubber hose fifty feet long. I use twelve of 
the sprinklers at one time and could use more just as 
well, each sprinkler staying in place thirty minutes, each 
one covering a space of from fifty to seventy feet, accord- 
ing to the amount of pressure given them, and discharg- 
ing about 1000 gallons. By this process I have a gen- 
10 



146 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

nine rain, either alight one or a powerful one, at pleas- 
ure. If I wish to throw water over the tops of the trees, 
I use the nozzle instead of sprinkler. I run the pump 
from 7 A. M. to 6 P. M. without stopping, using less 
than one-half cord of wood in eleven hours. I find no 
bad results from applying the water in the hottest sun- 
shine, but would if I applied it through an open hose. I 
think the sprinkler method of applying water requires 
less help than any other I have seen, and is without any 
danger to fruit or trees. The fireman can manage the 
sprinklers within reasonable distance of the pumping 
station. For other portions only one man is ever needed 
and it is light work for him." 

While using the hose in irrigating fields with an un- 
derground pipe system to supply the water costs more at 
the .beginning, it often proves loss expensive and much 
more satisfactory in the end. A field irrigated in this 
way is illustrated in Figure 53. 

Hillside Methods. In irrigating hillsides great 
care should be exercised lest much of the best soil as 
well as the manures applied be washed away. With 
slopes at all pronounced, great care should be taken to 
draw the irrigating furrows across the slopes in such 
direction as may insure a proper flow without the danger 
of washing. No definite rule can .be given for this, but 
a little experience and training of the eye, to judge of the 
proper declivity to insure a safe flow of water, will soon 
tell the careful cultivator in what direction to run his 
irrigating furrows, if the water be applied in that man- 
ner. A study of Figure 54 gives one a practical idea u 
to how these furrows may be run and manipulated. 
Flooding from one furrow to another is a very simple 
matter and only requires a little experience on the part 
of the irrigator. 

Backsetting. -^ In Western Kansas a primitive 
system of sub-irrigation by damming a stream in a fiat 



METHODS 01' Al'1'LYIN-U WATKII. 



147 



country and forcing the water through tho adjacent 
lands by percolation is somewhat relied upon but will 
not become generally adopted. The water is dammed 
and simply forced out through the banks into the ground, 
and in this way subterranean moisture is aH'ordcd the 
surface soil to produce good crops. The plan is rather 







FIG. 54. IRRIGATING A HILLSIDE. 

too expensive in dam building to make it veiy popular, 
and the operator having no control over the seepage tide 
would soon find his ground water-logged and too wet for 
ordinary farm crops. 

Fall and Winter Irrigation. In many sections 
of the West the system of fall irrigation has been prac- 



148 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

ticed with good success. After the crops are all har- 
vested the water is turned on and the soil is given a 
thorough soaking. Subsoiling greatly enhances the 
value of winter irrigation, which furnishes moisture for 
the starting of plant life in the early spring, and causes 
the weeds and other remnants of the cropping season to 
more easily decay and act as a top-dressing of fertilizers. 
The land is also put in good condition for plowing early 
in the spring. But very few crops should be irrigated 
from the time of planting till after the plants have had 
several days' growth. Fall irrigation supplies moisture 
sufficient to start the crops and gives them a vigorous 
growth of a few weeks before irrigation is necessary. It 
is better for young plants to have the moisture come 
from beneath than from the surface, especially in the 
early spring, when water for irrigation is several degrees 
colder than that stored in the soil by irrigating late in 
the fall. 

We have found in Colorado that irrigation may be 
applied advantageously before the regular cold days of 
winter set in, and this practice is adopted generally by 
successful cultivators where water can be had at that 
time of the year. The late irrigation is useful after a 
dry fall and is especially to be commended in the prepa- 
ration for crops which require the maximum amount of 
moisture, and for orchards, or where the water supply is 
likely to be short the coming season. It places the land 
in the condition of a storage reservoir for the succeeding 
season, and experience has shown that the soil that 
has received a thorough irrigation in the fall or early 
winter has great advantage over ground that ha< not. 
This is true when land is fall-plowed, and the water may 
be applied either by rills or by flooding. Let it In- a 
iruod deep soaking. Orchardists are generally adopt inir 
this plan for their trees, and thus the evil effects of win- 
ter drying arc circumvented. 



METHODS OF APPLYING WATER. 149 

Foreign Methods. In China a very primitive 
way of irrigating is in use. A Chinese farmer's estate 
is usually a sandy plain with slopes from one end to the 
other. His first step is to divide it into counterparts by 
raising low walls or partitions of clay. They are usually 
a foot and a half thick and two feet high. Where it is 
difficult to get clay he constructs the wall of the stones 
he finds in the soil, or of broken bricks and tiles, and 
stops up the crevices with clay or even mud. Any form 
of soil excepting sand is used in this manner. He even 
gathers the ooze bared by the low tide with which to 
build the walls. In each little compartment he builds a 
ditch in front of the lower wall, and at the corner of 
the compartment he lowers the wall somewhat for the 
water to flow from one check to the next adjoining, very 
much as is done by the Mexicans. When it rains the 
compartments fill, and the entire field looks like a lot of 
panes of glass; the water soaks slowly into the soil and 
keeps the ground moist enough for agricultural and hor- 
ticultural .purposes for several months. For the irriga- 
tion of rice lands, which have to be submerged, the 
lands are divided into small patches at large levees, so 
that the appearance is that of a beautiful system of ter- 
races, near a bountiful supply of water, which is raised 
to the upper level by chain pump and treadmill process 
with coolie power. In places where there is a scarcity 
of water the men and women carry, suspended from a 
yoke across their shoulders, two large buckets with long 
spouts, and sprinkle rows of vegetables copiously. Some- 
times the water for this purpose is carried in buckets a 
considerable distance. Liquid manure is applied in the 
same way. 

The irrigation of Egypt is now conducted on a sci- 
entific basis. The whole country is cut up into canals, 
and there are immense irrigating works in the .delta, 
which during the inundations of the Nile require hun- 



150 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

dreds of thousands of men to manage them. An im- 
mense dam extends across the Nile near Cairo, which 
raises its waters into a vast canal through which they 
are allowed to flow out into subordinate canals over the 
irivat delta. There are some steam pumps used in 
Egyptian irrigation, but by far the greater part of the 
country is irrigated now as it was in the days of the 
Pharaohs. This is by means of the shadoof and sakiych. 
All over Egypt may be seen men naked, to the waist 
standing knee-deep in water with a basket-work bucket 
hung by ropes between them. With a swinging motion 
they scoop the water from the river into this bucket and 
swing it up to a canal on a higher level, from whence it 
runs off into the fields. The wate'r is often drawn from 
this canal into a higher ditch in the same way, and thus 
by a series of planes it is conducted so that none is lost. 
After the water is taken out of the great canals, it is 
spread over the fields in little ponds, and the flat fields 
are often divided into small squares by means of embank- 
ments of earth one foot in hight which run around 
them like fences, and which can be opened or closed to 
regulate the hight of the water within them. The ris- 
ing of the Kile begins in June, and during the summer 
nmeh of Egypt is one vast lake. It remains so through 
September, and subsides toward the Litter part of 
October. It is at this time that the water is conducted 
into this vast network of canals, arid is carefully carried 
over the cultivatable lands. 

In Spain the system for irrigation of meadow lands 
most commonly applied in the northern provinces is by 
inclined channels, or the system of spike channels. The 
distribution channels are devised nearly in the sense of 
the greatest slopeness of the grounds. The irrigation 
channels connect with them and spread out from riirlit 
to left. A rapid sectional change takes place in the dis- 
tribution channels at the point where they separate into 



METHODS OF AIM I. VI. N<; WATEK. 151 

branches with the irrigating channels, which by having 
a gradually narrowing section from their parting point 
down to the end, pour out the water by getting inundated. 

Another contrivance is also combined with this dis- 
tributive system, which consists in collecting channels, 
called azarbes, dug on the natural lines of junction on 
the meadow ground, terminating in an outlet channel. 
Sometimes when the extent of the meadow is not con- 
siderable, or when the quantity of water available is but 
small, the collecting channels are changed into new feed- 
ing channels for the supply of other lands situated far- 
tluT down. They level off the ground so that the water 
can flow over it easily, without leaving standing pools and 
mud, or washing out the ground and forming gullies. 
They prepare their lands so that the water will flow over 
them easily and safely. They also construct their lateral 
ditches very well, and when they are through with the 
water the supply is turned off. They never waste it. 
They have only a few small reservoirs. 

In Australia much of the interior land is irrigated 
mostly through the medium of billabongs or lagoons 
that are oftentimes supplied from natural streams during 
the rainy season. The water is applied to the lands 
much the same as we apply it. In other countries along 
seashores a system known as warping is customary. By 
this mode the tides are received through an embank- 
ment or dyke and retained until the sediment or warp is 
deposited. Sub-irrigation is a system that is practiced in 
all countries, including our own, and as it is of much 
importance as to detail the writer will treat it in a special 
chapter later on. 



CHAPTER XII. 

IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 

The application of water is the one thing important 
in all irrigating operations and must receive the most 
careful study and consideration. Every man must be 
his own preceptor to a great degree, and it is only the 
general rules that will be useful to him. The mechan- 
ical part of the science of irrigation is easily learned and 
quickly understood by the novice. There is a branch of 
'the science, however, noc so quickly mastered, because 
not fully understood by practical farmers the quantity 
of water which any given grain or vegetable requires. 
No fixed rule as to quantity can be given because the 
nature of the soil, lay of the land and the season all tend 
to modify the amount required. The relative amount, 
however, can be ascertained with a fair degree of cer 
tainty. Experience shows that it is easy to exceed the 
quantity required by the crop, and that every excess is 
injurious. Extravagance is the common fault, so much 
so that the most successful irrigators are invariably those 
who use the least water. Cultivation, too, is a primary 
factor to the attainment of the fullest success in the 
magic art, and on this account the writer is constrained 
from time to time to digress from what may seem to be 
the real text of the subject. 

The irrigator will find that new land requires more 
water the first year than the second. Grain is irrigated 
two, three or four times, according to circumstance. As 
we have said before, the best results are scrmvd 1\ u.-inir 
a moderate quantity of water. A Mexican irrigates four 

152 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 153 

times and gets twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre. 
An American irrigates three times and gets thirty-five to 
forty bushels. Another farmer irrigates twice and gets 
fifty-five bushels to the acre. An ordinary laborer irri- 
gates fifteen to twenty-five acres in a day, though much 
more can and is often done, while thirty to fifty acres are 
irrigated by some farmers. 

Wheat. This crop should never be sown on low 
land not even second bottom but always on high land, 
plateaus or mesas. Where drainage is naturally good a 
deeply mellow soil is not the best, as some advocate. A 
good seedbed is absolutely essential, but the surface in 
rainy sections should be left quite rough for winter 
wheat, because it prevents the roots from being broken 
and dried out when the heaving of the soil in the early 
spring takes place ; and the ground should never be rolled 
where spring wheat is sown, in arid climates especially, 
because the heavy west winds will cut the crop entirely 
off. 

It is always best to germinate sown wheat if possi- 
ble without resorting to the expedient of irrigating it 
"up, "as is sometimes done by careless farmers. The 
ground should be in good moist tilth before the seeding 
is done, and if the rains have not been of sufficient 
quantity to supply the necessary moisture the field 
should be given a good flooding of from six to ten 
inches in depth. After a good harrowing the seed may 
be planted with a press drill, using from 60 to 75 pounds 
to the acre. The use of the press drill obviates the em- 
ployment of a roller, which is really superfluous where 
the crop is to be irrigated. It is an object to have the 
grain germinate as quickly as possible in order to out- 
strip the weeds. Here in Colorado we plant wheat early 
in April and it comes up inside of thirty days. If 
there is good moisture in the soil no water is needed un- 
til the last week in May, and some men make it a rule 



354 



IRRIGATION PAEMIXCi. 



not to irrigate the Qrst time until the grain is five or six 
inches high. One good reason for not irrigating a grain 
crop earlier than the twentieth of May is because early 
in the season the water is cold and consequently chills 
the crop. Another objection tp irrigating before the 




FIG. 55. IRHTOATIXO A ORAINFIELD. 

1 ilnnts cover the ground is that flooding bakes the soil 
and prevents a free circulation of air. There is still 
another important reason. When the soil is moist near 
the surface the plant does not send its roots down as 
deeply as it would if the supply were stinted, and hence 
lias not such abundant supplies to draw from. A month 



IltKIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 155 

after the first irrigation the crop may need water again, 
if there have been no rains in the interim, but this mat- 
ter can be determined by an examination of the soil. 
The second irrigation will require not more than half 
the water given in the first application. It is a great 
advantage to keep the plants growing steadily during 
the early period of growth. 

Some irrigators are in favor of giving a third wet- 
ting not a very heavy one, however just as the grain 
is heading, claiming that this practice makes larger ber- 
ries and a grain yield of more specific gravity. Over- 
watering at this time may cause rust, and great discretion 
must bo used as to the water at this period. If the 
ground is moist it is not necessary to give the heading 
irrigation. Figure 55 shows the process of flooding a 
wheat crop from a field furrow, the irrigator throwing 
in a diverting check of earth to flood the field laterally. 

If the first irrigation is late and there is a good deep 
compact subsoil, one irrigation will usually make a crop, 
and we would rather have one twelve-inch irrigation 
than two six-inch ones. The surface can be covered 
with six inches if the incline is steep, and on such a sur- 
face it is best to irrigate light and often, as by r mining 
heavy heads for a considerable time the plants maybe 
washed out. On the upper bench lands of the West, 
when fairly level, two irrigations are all that is needed, 
and with only one after three years of cultivation there 
is no danger of a complete failure of the crop. 

Professor Blount, who is the best authority in the 
world on wheat growing by irrigation, advocates the 
cultivation of wheat by the ridge system. He says : 
"Wheat in ridges with furrows between will pay many 
times over all the extra cultivation and expense. The 
ridges should be twenty inches apart, running north and 
south, so that the sun may get in upon the roots during 
the later growth. On these ridges, which are two and 



156 IRRIGATION FARMIXG. 

one-half inches high, choice selected grain should be 
planted by hand if planted early there is generally 
enough moisture in the soil to germinate every grain. 
Winter wheat wants but little water after November. 
Spring wheat needs the first irrigation about the time it 
is undergoing the process of stooling. The cultivation 
may be done with one horse and a small plow with 
guards to keep the dirt from covering the growing grain, 
or it can be done with a hoe. The furrows between 
should be kept open and clean so that the water when 
applied may run below the top of the ridges all the 
time and do its work among the roots, and never on 
the surface. This plan requires only nine or ten 
pounds of seed to the acre and the yield will be just. 
as great. It must be understood that wheat planted 
in this way will tiller in such manner as to increase 
the yield." 

Oats. The secret of raising oats successful!}* as 
with almost all spring-sown crops is found to consist 
in the quick germination of the seed, a rapid and health v 
growth during the first stages, allowing no backset, and 
careful attention to the cultivation and irrigation. Oats 
require more water than does any other grain crop, and in 
very dry spells they may be irrigated in the earlier stage 
of grojvth every two weeks. The general treatment is 
the same as for wheat only that greater quantities of 
water are usually needed. It is well to plant early so as 
to get the benefit of snows and rain, that the seed may 
germinate of its own accord. When six inches high the 
principal wetting should be given, and an acre foot is 
not too much water to apply at this time in the arid 
region, especially on sandy soil. Some people irrigate 
almost continuously from the time the crop commences 
to head until the grain begins to turn. The claim made 
is that the practice checks the first stand and forces the 
-rain to root, stool and head moro abundantly. The 



I IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 157 

only objection to such copious irrigation is that it con- 
duces to the smut or ergot evil. 

Barley. Barley is an easy crop to raise, yet a little 
disagreeable on account of its beards. It grows quickly 
and matures early, and requires but half the water for 
irrigation usually given to oats, and considerably less 
than wheat. On an average it will produce many more 
bushels to the acre than will wheat, and brings a. better 
price. For the best success the land should be plowed 
moderately deep in the fall, then pulverized thoroughly 
in the spring, and the seed put in early with a drill. 
Spring plowing will do, but not quite so well as fall 
plowing. Irrigation is quite essential while the grain is 
filling, and during the early ripening period. One and a 
quarter bushels of seed on rich land is a sufficiency to 
sow, and a good seedbed is quite as necessary as any irri- 
gation that may be given it. 

Black barley is said to have many advantages. It 
yields more to the acre than any other barley. But this 
is not its only good feature. It can be grown with less 
irrigation than can wheat, other barley, or oats. If sown 
early and watered plentifully until the first of July it 
will then head out and yield a fair crop without further 
irrigation. This has at least been our experience with this 
grain. The straw does not grow as long as other grain, but 
notwithstanding dry weather the heads will usually fill. 

Rye. Of all the cereal crops rye will need a lesser 
quantity of water and will take care of itself where other 
things will fail. With a reasonable amount of moisture 
for germination rye will often get along with but one 
light soaking any time during its half growth, but if 
the plants are lagging and seem inclined to dwindle they 
may be irrigated at any time, and once a month with a 
medium wetting would do no harm. 

Corn. The preparation of the soil before planting 
has more to do with the outcome of the crop than any 



158 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

other operation. Corn roots have the habit of growing 
downward as well as branching. They are deep and 
broad feeders, in consequence of which the soil must be 
made loose and mellow to a considerable depth to secure 
full development. Land for corn should be plowed to 
an average depth of ten inches or more for this and 
another very important reason. Those familiar with the 
conditions of irrigation know with what rapidity a com- 
pact soil loses moisture. Land should always be well 
irrigated before plowing, if not sufficiently moist. As 
irrigation restores the soil to its former compactness, it 
should never be applied upon soils freshly plowed and 
prepared for planting, unless required to germinate the 
seed. There arc advantages claimed for spring plowing. 
It enables the farmer to control moisture in making the 
operations of irrigating, plowing and planting contin- 
uous. Irrigating to germinate seed after planting should 
never be practiced, as much of the seed becomes ruined, 
and feeble growth takes place, which can seldom if ever 
be overcome by cultivation. Usually two waterings are 
sufficient during the growth of a crop, and often one 
irrigation is preferable. If the soil contains sufficient 
moisture in the spring to start the crop to a thrifty grow- 
ing condition, and growth seems not to be retarded for 
want of moisture, watering can be delayed until the tas- 
sels begin to appear, at which time drouth would cause 
great injury to the crop. 

The mistake is often made in the use of a large head 
of water while irrigating corn and in attempting to get it 
properly distributed over large areas and through long 
rows. Much of the land thus watered becomes toe we^ 
while other portions receive an insufficient supply. In 
neither case can the best results be expected. Another 
very serious objection to irrigating with a large head of 
water is that the water generally contains much insoluble 
earthy matter, which is ever being deposited as sediment. 



IUUIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 159 

"Water ways become coated and moisture fails to pene- 
trate to the roots of plants along their course. To irri- 
gate properly the furrows must be well made and as 
nearly free of obstructions as careful methods will permit. 
The slope of the laud will determine the distance it is 
practicable to run water for uniform results. No greater 
(luautity should be turned into each furrow than will 
flow with uniform rate. Seepage is slow at best and it 
usually takes many hours to secure the proper amount of 
moisture to the soil to prove of lasting benefit. In irri- 
gating corn no great quantities of water are necessary, 
as is the case with root crops. While irrigation at the 
proper time is often essential to the right development 
of the corn product, the crop is impaired by excessive 
watering, and hence there is no more certain way of re- 
tarding growth and maturity than by the careless appli- 
cation of water. Better not irrigate at all than to use 
water lavishly. After the grain glazes there is no further 1 
need of water to mature the crop. Caution is advised in 
irrigating corn on sandy land that the stalks are not 
washed out at the roots and thus tumble -over. 

Egyptian Corn. Plow the ground into ridges 
three or four feet apart, run the water through deep fur- 
rows, then level the ridges down and with a disc harrow 
stir the soil perfectly and cut it fine. Then when it is 
completely level plant with a double-row corn planter. 
A single one will answer, of course, but the better is the 
double-row planter with the check-row attachment, let- 
ting a boy work the handles as fast as he can conven- 
iently, so as to drop four or five seeds in a place, and not 
more than eighteen or twenty inches apart in the rows. 
The planters make the rows three feet eight inches apart, 
which is convenient for cultivation. The disc harrow 
which is used for ridging and cultivating, is perhaps one 
of the best cultivators, although any cultivator which 
can be used for corn will serve the purpose. The ground 



160 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

being well watered before planting, the seed should ger- 
minate and make a growth of at least eight or ten inches 
before any cultivation is needed. Then throw a slight 
ridge, or, with the disc set to leave a good center furrow, 
throw a ridge on either side of the corn, but not letting 
it bury the corn. Leave it with this cultivation until it 
is eighteen inches high, without further watering. Then 
in the furrows which have been made by the cultivator 
give the ground a thorough soaking, and as soon as pos- 
sible afterward go through with the cultivators. Then 
there is no objection to hilling the plant somewhat. 
This will be the only cultivation necessary to complete 
the growth of the crop. If planted before the first of 
May, it ought to be ready for harvesting in August. 
After the corn has been removed, another thorough 
watering between the .rows will put the ground in excel- 
lent condition for another cultivation, which will insure 
a rapid growth of suckers from the root of the plant. It 
will throw up a mass of new growth, which will not ma- 
ture grain, but which will make from two to four tons 
of fine forage to the acre. Kindred crops such as Jeru- 
salem corn, Kaffir corn, sorghum, dhourra, Milo maize, 
imphees, teosinte and other non-saccharine forage crops 
which have become quite popular of late years in the arid 
region, may be irrigated and cultivated substantially the 
same as Egyptian corn. When sorghum is grown for 
syrup it needs a good deal of irrigation up to a certain 
point that is, when it has commenced its active growth, 
after which water should be applied sparingly ; otherwise 
the sap will be diluted and impaired in quality. No 
water should be given within a month of cutting. Broom 
corn needs but little water if the cultivation is conscien- 
tiously done. At the time of the heading out of the 
panicle, however, water should be given plentifully to 
force a good growth of brush and produce a smooth, 
long and straight fiber. Of course when excessive drouth 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 101 

is prevalent all those crops must be irrigated more fre- 
<|iK'iitly, say once a month, in order to induce a steady 
growth. The various millets should receive the same 
treatment virtually as prescribed for broom corn. 

Beans. The ground should be plowed at least 
eight inches deep. A sandy loam is much preferable to 
a heavier soil. After the ground is plowed it should be 
thoroughly irrigated. When sufficiently dry plant the 
beans in rows twenty-eight inches apart, three or four 
beans to every foot. Irrigate as soon as three or four 
leaves appear, which will be within a week after they 
come up. As soon as dry thoroughly cultivate. Irri- 
gate again about the time that they are in bloom, and give 
one or two light irrigations afterwards, thoroughly cul- 
tivating the ground after each irrigation. We have 
found that the best method of irrigating is by ditching 
with a single-shovel plow and irrigating in every other row 
alternately. The water should not be permitted to 
come in contact with the plants. Beans should be 
planted as soon as danger of frost is past. The prepa- 
rations for irrigation may be made with the first culti- 
vation, and the space between the rows should be util- 
ized for the water course. Irrigation should take place 
in ordinary dry weather at least once every ten days, and 
the crop needs plenty of moisture, especially while the 
plants are in blossom. If after the blossom is complete 
the weeds show a preponderance of growth, threatening 
to choke the progress of the crop, a shallow cultivation 
should be given, and this will terminate the work for 
the season. After the pod has fully formed there will 
be less necessity for water, and as a rule the bean requires 
no irrigation after the legumes are half grown, for the 
crop is then made and the harvest certain. The best 
way to harvest is with a machine working something 
like a horse rake. Threshing secures the beans. For 
field varieties we prefer such sorts as the Mexican, Red 
11 



1G2 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

and White Kidney, Lima and the Marrow, rather than 
the Navy, which, however, is largely produced by some 
growers. 

Peas. This crop may be planted for either grain 
or forage, and in a general way the handling of the crop 
is not materially different from that for beans. Plant- 
ing should be done by the first of April, and unless the 
season is an exceptionally dry one, irrigation about the 
first of July, or just at the blossoming period, is all that 
is demanded. For grain the peas may be sown in drills, 
or broadcast. Forty pounds to the acre in the former 
case and sixty-five in the latter are about right. If 
broadcasted the seed should be lightly plowed under. 
For forage growth alone it is best to sow broadcast two 
and one-half bushels an acre of the smaller Canadian 
field pea, and three to three and one-half bushels of the 
Marrowfat. Then cross-plow the seed under not less 
than four inches deep. Add to these one bushel of oats 
an acre, and after the seed is well put in mark out the 
field furrows about the same as for grain. It is always 
best to irrigate when the peas are in blossom, and then, 
when they are past the boiling stage and the pods are 
green enough to dry and hold the grain, cut them with 
a mowing machine, throwing each swath out of the way. 
For hay do not allow the ground to dry, as prolific 
growth of vine is what is desired. Some years it will 
take four or five irrigations, while other years three will 
be found sufficient. The great secret in raising pea hay 
is in curing it. For small crops the best way is to cut 
the vines with a hand scythe, and let them lay as cut for 
twenty- four hours, then take a fork and make them into 
large cocks, which should remain undisturbed for a 
period of two weeks, by which time they are well cured. 
Never open them. When they are ready to stack simply 
turn the cocks over one day before drawing them in, as 
ih l)')t/om of the cock will be found to contain enough 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 103 

moisture to make them moM in the stack if not dried 
before hauling. Peas put up in this way will be as 
pvi'ii in January and February as they were in the pre- 
vious June and July. 

Rice. In growing this crop by irrigation in the 
South, it is best to select a tract of level land, which 
should lie so that it may be surrounded by a low L 
for the purpose of retaining the water on the field. It 
is plowed into beds fifty feet in width, thoroughly pul- 
verized, and put into condition to receive the seed. 
Eighty to ninety pounds of rice to the acre is sown A\ ith 
a seeder in the latter part of March, or in April, some- 
times as late as June, though the late-sown rice is not so 
apt to make a good crop as the earlier sown. After 
seeding, the ground is thoroughly harrowed, that all the 
seed may be well covered ; then the harrow is followed 
with a roller, in many instances, to crush down clods 
and lumps, and make a good, smooth seedbed. When 
the young rice has grown to four or five inches in 
hight irrigating is begun, usually by pumps, putting 
On an average of two inches depth of water over the 
whole field, but not enough to cover the young plants. 
As the rice grows the water is increased in depth, 
following the growth of the rice with the water, until 
there is a depth of six to ten inches over the whole 
field. This depth is maintained until the rice is headed 
out, and the grain formed and grown well out of the 
milk ; in fact, until the dough stage, as it would he 
called in wheat. At this time the water is drawn off 
the land, and by the time it has dried out so the binder 
can be run, the rice is ripe and ready to cut. It is 
cut with the ordinary self-binding harvester, is shocked 
up in shocks of twenty-five to thirty bundles each, 
these shocks well capped with four bundles broken 
down at the band, and then left until well cured and 
ready for the separator. 



164 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Flax. This is one of the neglected crops of the 
United States, but it is coming into favor more commonly 
here in the West. The crop requires but little moisture, 
and if furnished early in the season insures a yield. 
Flax may be sown any time in May, for good results, 
though as late as the middle of June is not objection- 
able if the ground at that time is found to contain 
enough moisture to germinate the seed and promote 
plant growth. Not less than forty-five pounds of seed 
should be sown on an acre, while fifty pounds will give 
better results in most cases. The yield of flaxseed 
varies all the way from eight to twenty-five bushels to 
the acre. It should be sown in drills nine inches apart, 
or if broadcast the corrugated roller may be profitably 
employed. As the crop is grown mostly for fiber, the 
value of which depends greatly upon the length and fine- 
ness of the stems, it should be kept growing steadily, 
and may be irrigated every three or four weeks with 
light heads calculated to sink deep into the soil, so as 
not to coax the roots toward the top. After the plants 
are three-quarters grown withhold the water and thus 
give the fiber a chance to ripen properly before cutting. 

Hemp. Irrigation very much improves this crop 
as it does flax. The land is laid off into beds three feet 
wide, with spaces of a foot between each plat. The seed 
is sown on these beds after the entire field has receive ! a 
good preparatory soaking. The spaces between the beds 
are reserved for cultivating and irrigating. After the 
seed lias germinated a good irrigation is given through 
the furrows, and the water is best applied when run 
.^owly, so that it will seep through the beds from each 
Every ten days the field should be irrigated until 
within a fortnight of tho flowering period, when water - 

-lionld cease. If irrigated during the flowering the 
pistillate flower* are weakened in fertilization and there 
will be a decreased seed crop. As soon as the pollen has 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 103 

been shed the staminate stalks should be prilled out, so 
as to give more room for the ripening of the seed. It is 
quite necessary through all hemp culture to keep the 
soil well moistened, but not so saturated as to be classed 
as too wet. 

Cotton. But few crops need so little water as does 
cotton, the only essential point being to keep the soil in 
a moist condition. Plow high ridges or beds four and 
one-half feet wide, much the same as for hemp, but pro- 
vide the irrigating furrow lengthwise in the middle, 
using a small shovel plow for this pin-pose. Give the 
beds a good preparatory irrigation. Sow the seed an 
inch deep in opened drills and press down firmly after 
depositing the seed. If the bed has had a liberal soak- 
ing, as described, but one more irrigation usually is re- 
quired, and this should be given as the plants begin to 
boll. The plowing is done in February and the sowing 
takes place in March. 

Hops. This crop will grow on a great variety of 
soil?, but the deep alluvial river bottom mixed with clay 
will produce the best quality and greatest quantity. 
While hop roots must have moisture, and in friable 
lands will go deep in search of it, wet lands are not the 
best and are even unsuitable. Hops are perennial, and 
when set in kindly soil the roots will go down several feet 
and will draw moisture from very great depths in any 
weather, unless prevented by a hard subsoil. To secure 
the best results it is absolutely necessary to select soil 
that is naturally drained, or that which is thoroughly 
underdrained before planting. A yard set 6x6 feet will 
give 1031 hills to the acre. Take the sets from the 
pruned runners and cut them in pieces so as to have 
three pairs of eyes to each piece. Plant these pieces at 
the proper distances, being careful to place them three 
or four inches deep. Thus when the land washes level, 
the crown will be under the ground. The first move 



166 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

towards cultivating a crop is the pruning. This should 
be done early. All runners should be removed and the 
crown cut back, when found growing above the surface. 
Heavy pruning is not desirable, especially on light soil. 
Neither is it well to pmit pruning altogether in any year. 
Irrigation can be done by flooding, or by furrows, the 
latter being the better plan, and once every three or four 
weeks will suffice. The water should run for twelve 
hours at a time, and a good wetting just as the buds are 
forming is very beneficial. No water should be put on 
after the 15th of August, as the crop is then guaranteed. 
Tobacco. The soil should be carefully prepared 
before time to transplant from the frames. Irrigation 
furrows between the three-foot rows should be made 
deep and must be in readiness so that the water may fol- 
low closely upon the setting out. If the soil is moist 
the plants may be set and the damp earth firmed. If 
the soil is dry a puddle should be made for the roots, and 
a small irrigating stream should be allowed to trickle 
past until the plants take new root. Transplanting is 
done the same as with cabbages or tomatoes, and the 
modern plan, where the acreage is large, is to use the 
transplanting machine drawn by a team. This machine 
has an automatic jet of water for each hill as the plant 
is set, and is a great labor-saving device. Frequent cul- 
tivation is necessary, but water should be applied very 
cautiously. Too much water causes the tobacco to 
"french"and become worthless. If not enough water 
is used the plants will soon wither and parch, thus be- 
coming of no use as a crop. The tops should be pinched 
out after the plants reach a bight of thirty inches. 
This topping process will be followed by a crop of suck- 
ers equal in number to the leaves on each plant. These 
must be removed twice, at least, before the tobacco is 
ready for cutting. One irrigation during the middle 
period of growth is usually sufficient for tobacco, pmvid- 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 167 

ing the cultivation lias been carefully attended to. If 
the soil is exceptionally dry and warm, however, irriga- 
tion may occur every ten days after a month from the 
transplanting, but no moisture to the root is needed 
after the plants are topped. In Arid America the leaves 
need artificial sprinkling to produce salable fiber. The 
ordinary fruit tree sprayers may be used and the plants 
given two or three light showers in the early evening 
after the plants begin to ripen. This will supply the 
deficiency in air moisture and cause the fibers to thicken 
and become more solid. 

Potatoes. Here is something that requires scien- 
tific irrigation. The ground intended for an irrigated 
crop should be a smooth piece, having sufficient 
slope to make the water run freely between the rows. 
It should be plowed eight inches deep, or more, and 
then harrowed and dragged until the soil is firm through- 
out and thoroughly pulverized on the surface. Lay off 
the ground in rows three and one-half feet apart with a 
corn marker, or a small shovel which will make a shallow 
furrow, the rows running the same way the ground 
slopes, if it is not too steep. A slope of seven to ten 
feet to the mile gives good results. The distance apart 
in the rows depends upon the variety. If the Early 
Ohio, which grows the smallest vines of any variety, be 
used, I would advise planting ten inches apart in the 
row. If the Peach Blow, which grows the largest vines 
of any variety, be used, I would advise a distance of 
twenty-one inches apart. The rows should be from 
three feet to three feet six inches apart. The closer you 
have the rows, and yet be able to work with horses con- 
veniently, the better, because, the more compact the mat 
of tops of the vines, the better the ground will be pro- 
tected from the direct rays of the sun so that, after 
irrigation, the moisture may be retained in the ground, 
as the potato delights in a cool, moist soil. Cover by 



168 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

throwing up from each side a good slice with a two-horse 
stirring plow. This will cover the potatoes to a good 
depth and leave them in ridges for irrigation. We 
always make it a point to give the prepared ground 
a good flooding before planting, unless the heavens have 
wept copiously to moisten the ground. We plant, in 
Colorado, from May 20 to June 10. For seed \ve 
prefer the half-cut tuber, although this is a matter of 
one's own judgment. 

When the sprouts appear above ground we go over 
the patch with a slant-tooth drag to loosen the soil. 
There is no danger of injuring the plant in this way. 
We are not able to say just when potatoes should be irri- 
gated. In that, as in size of seed, no rule will hold 
good. Some varieties require more water than do others, 
and some soils require more than others. Water 
applied too soon will often turn the vines yellow and 
permanently check their growth. On the other hand, 
if the ground is very dry at the period when potatoes 
are setting, as we term the formation of the young 
tubers, it often happens that no after application of the 
water will remedy the matter, and a short crop is the 
result. As a general rule, it is much better for the crop 
that the vines should attain a good degree of growtli and 
be well in blossom before water is applied, but there is 
no fixed rule as to this. When the ground gets very 
dry and hot, and the vines turn dark-colored and cease 
to grow, water becomes a necessity at no matter what 
season, unless the crop has already or nearly matured. 

If the spring has been cold and very backward, ami 
the subsoil is still lacking in warmth, it will be found fatal 
to the potato plant to apply water, even if the soil is 
very dry. It has been found that soils that are heavily 
manured will take water at an earlier date in the sprinir 
without injury to the plant than will poor, thin soils; also, 
ly reason of the undecayed manure applied, it is neces- 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 109 

sary to use water sooner than on unmanured soil. One 
good watering will often mature a crop of potatoes, but 
if the growth of vines is heavy and shades the ground 
well, two, or even three, waterings will increase the 
yield and can in no ordinary case injure it. Each appli- 
cation of water should be followed immediately with 
thorough cultivation, until the vines are too large or 
the tubers too near grown to permit of it. Nothing is 
so damaging to a growing crop as to leave the furrow or 
gutter in which the water has run to bake and dry in 
the sun. Even when the advanced growth of the vines 
and tubers will not permit it near the base of the hill, 
cultivation may still continue with profit as long as the 
furrow is in sight in the middle of the row. 

In watering, it is best not to try to run water 
through too long rows. As a rule it is best not to have 
the rows over 40 rods in length. If the ground is very- 
steep, of course the water will run quickly through, but 
it will have to run longer than in a row with less fall, 
to give it time to soak in ; and if the rows are too long, 
by the time the water is through and the lower end is 
wet enough, the upper end will have had too much. If 
the ground has too little fall, the least clod will clog up 
the rows and flood the surface. See that there is a free 
opening at the lower end of each row, or the water will 
back up in row after row for rods, and flood and ruin 
the crop. In sandy soils water should not continue to 
run more than three or four hours, while in tenacious 
soils the irrigation may continue eight or ten hours at a 
time. 

After once irrigating it is very important that the 
ground should never be allowed to become dry, thus 
stopping the growth of the potato. For if we permit 
the growth of a potato to stop, and by irrigation it again 
starts to grow, it will either increase irregularly in size 
or set a second crop, thus giving a large number of small 



170 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



potatoes or a crop of ill-shaped ones. The irrigation is 
usually discontinued about the first of September, 
although if it is a dry fall a later irrigation may be 
needed. A potato field under irrigation is the subject 
of Figure 56. 

Around Greeley, Colorado, where potatoes are so 
successfully raised, though they may appear to need 
water, the farmers are careful not to irrigate them until 
after the young tubers are set. The reason for this is 
obvious. When irrigated immediately before setting, a 
greater number of potatoes will be formed than the plant 




FIG. 56. IRRIGATING A CROP OF POTATOES. 

can properly support, few of them becoming large 
enough for market. When the tubers are allowed to 
form first and are irrigated afterwards, fewer potatoes will 
form in each hill, but a large crop of marketable tubers 
is the result. Keeping the ground mellow by thorough 
and deep cultivation is important. If the ground is dry, 
irrigate some time before beginning to set. If kept too 
wet, a large amount of tops and few potatoes will be 
produced. 

Sweet Potatoes. The most successful growers 
find it best to plant the seed in hotbeds about the last of 



I1UUGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 171 

March. The seed will yield two and three sets of plants, 
which are transplanted in the open ground from the first 
of May to the first of July. Seed potatoes weigh from 
two ounces to one pound, and the transplanting is done 
when the plants are eight to twelve inches long. The 
field is plowed twelve inches deep and the rows are 
thrown up three and one-half feet apart, and the 
plants are set eighteen inches apart in the row. 
This requires 8500 plants to an acre. The irrigating 
water follows closely upon the work of transplanting, 
and in ten days another irrigation may be given with a 
good head of water, which is let on for five or six hours. 
Irrigations continue at intervals of two weeks or oftener, 
according to the condition of the weather, until the 
tubers are half grown, when irrigation is discontinued. 
Do not put on too much water, and it should not come 
up more than two-thirds the hight of the ridges, if it 
can be helped. The ground is not disturbed during 
the growing season by cultivation, but the weeds are 
hoed off close to the ground once or twice during the 
season. 

In harvesting, a furrow is plowed on one side and 
close up to a row of potatoes, then the return furrow on 
the other side throws the tubers out and they are picked 
up by hand. After the transplanting is done the roots 
go directly down to the hard surface of the under soil, 
and the potato grows in an upright position from that 
point. The Bermudas are the largest variety, and the 
Nansemonds are the smaller ones, while a most popu- 
lar market variety is the Jersey Sweet. 

Sugar Beets. The .seedbed should be thoroughly 
pulverized, to kill the young weeds, just before planting. 
As soon as the ground is warm the seed should be 
planted two inches deep, in drills from sixteen to twenty- 
four inches apart. If hand-planted, ten to fifteen pounds 
of seed to the acre is sufficient. If drilled in, use fifteen 



172 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

to twenty pounds of seed. Any good garden drill 
do, and grain drills can be used by closing soine of the 
openings. The earth should be pressed close to the 
seed by a following wheel with a two-inch tire, on the 
principle of the press drills. The depressed seed row 
acts as a catch basin for any slight rainfall, and at the 
same time shelters the seed from drying winds. Rolling 
the whole ground has proved injurious, as it brings all 
the soil moisture to the surface to be swept away by the 
dry wind. Seed drilled on ridges remains dry in the 
arid climate until the furrows between are filled with 
irrigation water. Cultivation tends to uncover the tops 
of beets growing on these ridges, and the uncovered por- 
tion is unfit for sugar. 

If the ground be so dry that the seed must be 
irrigated it should not be flooded, for thereby many 
seeds will be washed away and the sprouting seeds force 
their way with difficulty through the resulting caked 
surface. Shallow irrigating furrows should be made mid- 
way between the rows, and the water will reach the seeds 
by seepage. These furrows can be made at the time of 
drilling by an attachment like a corn-row marker, which 
could also be used separately after drilling. If the 
ground is moist enough to bring up the seed, the irri- 
gating furrows need not be made until the operation will 
kill many sprouting weed seeds. Further cultivation 
can be done with a hand hoe or the many forms of gar- 
den and horse cultivators. Tlie soil should be kept mel- 
low. The more cultivation the more sugar. Hilling is 
not necessary, as good varieties of sugar beets grow very 
little root above ground. "When the beets have from 
four to six leaves they should be thinned to single plants 
four to eight inches apart in the row. Thin to four 
inches in very rich ground and to more than eight inches 
in very poor ground. The long roots of the beets gather 
so much moisture from the subsoil that they require 1 less 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 178 

irrigation water than do the shallow-rooted grains and 
graces. During the fall the beet requires a dry surface 
soil to increase its saccharine content, and will thrive, 
getting all the moisture it needs from the summer irri- 
gated subsoil. Stop the irrigation early. Guard against 
seepage from surrounding land, and above all avoid such 
an excess of water as to flood the ground or accumulate 
in pools on any portion of it. Irrigators of sugar beets 
learn to use less water each year. 

The foregoing instructions apply to beets grown for 
the sugar factories. Producing them for live stock de- 
mands more frequent wetting and a forced habit of 
growth throughout. We have relied upon from four to 
seven irrigations in a season on subsoiled land, and have 
had the most flattering success when the water was ap- 
plied at least every fortnight from the first of June. 

Turnips, Beets and Carrots. These may be 
irrigated at any time, the only care necessary being to 
keep the ground mellow and in good tilth. Field tur- 
nips for live stock feeding should be sown broadcast 
about the first of August. Set out the irrigating fur- 
rows every six or ten feet, according to the porosity of 
the soil, and have them run at an easy grade. Wait 
long and patiently for the seed to germinate before 
irrigating for that purpose. Never flood turnip, 
parsnip or carrot ground, as the water would rot the 
crowns, undersoaking is the thing. Give frequent irri- 
gations until the root has fully formed. After the 
plants are large enough to shade the ground irrigation 
is scarcely necessary, and it might prove an injury and 
cause decay. 

Canaigre. This is a species of dock weed coming 
into great popularity in the Southwest on account of the 
tannic acid contained in the roots. The tubers must be 
planted in the early fall much the same as potatoes. 
With rain or irrigation in the fall the leaves appear and 



174 IKETGATIOX FARMING. 

a new crop of roots is formed. The irrigation should 
begin by October 1, and the soil should be kept moist 
through the winter and up to May 1, after which no 
more water is needed until August 1, the harvest tak- 
ing place late in September. Deep cultivation should 
1)0 practiced after each irrigation, and between times if 
the land requires it. With most lands five irrigations 
should be given the year's crop and at least as many cul- 
tivations. An average yield is anywhere from fifteen to 
twenty tons to the acre, and the crop is gathered with a 
potato digger. 

Meadows. Grasses may be irrigated at almost 
any time during the season. The best native hay 
grasses, the blue stems, poas, timothy, fescues, 
grama, etc., produce stems just underneath or at the 
surface of the ground. Wherever these underground 
stems or rootstalks are broken, other stems and leaves 
will grow. If these grasses are not thick enough, a 
thorough harrowing in the spring before the water is 
turned on answers the double purpose of breaking up 
the rootstalks, causing the sods to thicken, increasing 
the yield and leaving the ground in the best condition 
for absorbing water. Native meadows should be sup- 
plied with comparatively large amounts of water in the 
spring before the stalks begin to shoot, if the rainfall 
has been insufficient. No water should be given any 
hay crop for some length of time before it is to be cut. 
This allows the plant to store up larger amounts of nu- 
trition, and the ground is firm and in good condition 
for cutting and curing the hay. Alfalfa and other 
clovers, where more than one crop is tb be harvested in 
the season, should be quickly and thoroughly irrigated 
soon after the previous crop has been removed. One 
irrigation is usually sufficient for each crop. The same 
treatment should be given native meadows which are to 
be used for pasture. Tlio stubble is easy to irrigate, and 



IRRIGATION OF FIELD CROPS. 175 

in this condition the plants need moisture to enable 
them to put forth a new growth. 

In England meadow irrigation is quite commonly 
practiced. In many places a tide of rainwater is turned 
into stock yards having descending surfaces, the water 
running through the manure and carrying the fertilizing 
material into a large pond at the lowest side of the yard. 
The pond thus serves as a reservoir for the water, which 
has gathered the best elements of the manure it passed 
through in flowing to the pond. At the farther side of 
the pond a plug of wood four to six inches thick 
and four feet long is inserted in a pipe under the water, 
the pipe extending four to six feet into a small water 
course in an adjoining pasture. This water course has 
only a little descent, sufficient to let water flow along it. 
After heavy showers the plug is drawn, and the water 
and manure it contains let through the pipe into the 
pasture, where it is applied both in irrigating and ferti- 
lizing. The result is a very large crop of grass. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



G> 



IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 

There is no part of a farm that ought to receive 
more attention in the way of cultivation and irrigation 
than the garden, and it is here that the most flattering 
results may be obtained as the reward for one's labor. 
The first thing to be done after securing a suitable loca- 

tion is to thoroughly 

break and pulverize the 
soil. As irrigation is 
an essential element of 
success, the garden spot 
should be harrowed, lev- 
ele,d and rolled, so that 
water can easily be car- 
ried to all parts equally. 
After many years of 
careful observation and 
experience the writer is 
constrained to say that 
it is a better plan to 
have the garden laid out 
in the form of a paral- 
lelogram, with the nar- 



d a, 3. 



* 



38 



$ 



* 



* 






9 



fe 



no. w. I>IA<;K.\M <u :.MMKN. 



row and highest end 
abutting on the lateral. 
In this way the water 
may easily be taken from 
the ditch, and if the rows of crops run the entire length 
of the patch there will be no difficulty from jipplying 
water to one crop at the expense of another. 

170 



IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 



177 



Figure 57 gives the diagram of n \vell-laid-out gar- 
den after the style of these suggestions. The lateral is 
represented by a; b shows the measuring box or flume, c 
the head-flume or box at the head of the furrows, and d 
shows the gates or checks at the head of each row. If 
possible to do so, it is always best to flood the land before 
preparing the ground. Then when dry enough to work, 
prepare and plant at once, and the seed will always come 




FIG. 58. IRRIGATED GARDEN. 

up before it needs watering again. For radish, peas, 
lettuce and turnips it is best to prepare the ground level, 
and flood. Have the rows straight and the proper dis- 
tance apart for cultivation and irrigation. Plant the 
early varieties adjoining each other, so that the land can 
be used a second time during the season. The object 
should be to get as much as possible from a small patch, 
instead of using too much land and thus neglecting the 
entire garden. Lettuce, radishes, peas, beans and tur- 
nips are short-lived vegetables. Their days are soon 
12 



178 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

numbered, and the space they occupied, as early products, 
can be used a second or third time during the season. 
They should therefore be planted in such manner as to 
leave the unoccupied land all in one plat. The scene in 
Figure 58 gives a good idea of a garden under irrigation. 
Asparagus. A light sandy loam is preferable. 
Plow very deep, turning under a heavy coat of manure. 
Run two or three times for a deep furrow in which to 
plant. Set the roots down four to six inches below the 
even surface of the garden and draw the soil back into 
the furrow. One or two rows across the garden will be 
all that is needed for family use. If more than one row, 
make them four feet apart and set a foot to eighteen 
inches in the row. Set early in the spring. To irrigate, 
run a furrow with a light plow a foot or so from the 
row, and water well without permitting the water to 
leave the furrow. As soon as the soil is dry enough run 
the cultivator down the rows to fill the furrow and keep 
the soil from baking. Repeat the process as often as 
water is needed, and cultivate frequently. The writer 
sets two-year-old roots, using the Colossal and Palmetto 
varieties. We find it advisable to hoe the soil gradually 
up to form a ridge two feet wide over the plants, thus 
leaving a furrow of equal width between the ridges. In 
this way the roots of the plants are covered by a great 
depth of soil, and as the surface of the ridge to the 
depth of twelve inches is loose and dry, no attempt is 
made by the roots to push their way upwards. When 
the young shoots start to grow they have to push through 
a considerable space of loose soil on the ridges, and they 
can be cut at a point seven or eight inches below the 
sin-face as soon as the tips appear above ground and be- 
fore they begin to get green. Asparagus is rather par- 
tial to water, and irrigation may go on every ten days or 
two weeks during the cutting season, whilo once a month 
thereafter will suffice. 



IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 179 

Celery. The writer never had knowledge of a gar- 
den crop that needs more water than does celery. It does 
best in a soil that is naturally moist and is supplied with 
;m nbundance of vegetable matter. The market gardener 
generally raises two crops of celery early and late. The 
early crop is usually disposed of during the late sum- 
mer and fall months, while the late crop is stored for 
winter and spring use. For an early crop the seed is 
sown about the first of March in a moderate hotbed, in 
drills two inches apart. The soil should be made very 
rich and the bed well watered, to give the plants a good 
start. 

When the plants have grown to a fair size, they are 
usually transplanted into a cold frame. However, this 
practice of transplanting celery is rapidly disappearing. 
Experience has proven beyond a doubt that celery so 
treated will produce a larger pe'r cent of plants that go 
to seed, and therefore become worthless. The plants, 
while in the seedbed, should be shorn off at least twice, 
in order to make them stocky and form a quantity of 
fibrous roots. When the plants have attained the proper 
size that is, from three to four inches they should be 
transplanted into their permanent bed, which must be 
well fertilized with short and well-rotted manure, in 
rows five feet apart, and the plants set eight inches apart 
in the row. After transplanting the plants they should 
be given a good soaking by running the water down the 
rows, and if the weather is dry they must be irrigated at 
least once every week or ten days and cultivated after 
each irrigation. Some growers are more extravagant 
than this and irrigate as frequently as three times a 
week. In six weeks from setting, the plants will be 
large enough to be handled or banked. This is best 
done by throwing up a furrow on each side of the row, 
and pulling the earth close to the plants with a hoe. 
Then commence at one end of the row and gather up all 



180 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



the leaves, holding them with one hand and pushing the 
soil close to the plants with the other. This operation 
must be repeated several times. When the plants are 
desired to be bleached they must be banked up to the 
tips of the leaves. Late celery is handled in much the 
same manner as the early, differing from it only in three 
or four points. The seed is sown six weeks later in a 
well-prepared bed out of doors, and as it is intended for 
winter and spring use it must not be banked up as much 
as the early crop, for if it is bleached when stored away 
it will not keep. 

The Sabula Celery Company of Iowa has been try- 
ing a novel experiment for the irrigation of its celery 
field, which is proving a big success in every way. The 

irrigating is done by 
means of rows of tiling 
laid in the ground 
about a foot below the 
surface. The tiling 
cannot be placed to- 
gether snug enough 
FIG. 59. SECTION OF TILED CELERY BED. to be water-tight, and 
at every coupling the water forces itself through the 
joints. Rows of tiling are laid every twelve feet, and 
these are supplied by a long ditch furnished with a num- 
ber of gates which regulate the water supply, the ditch 
being filled by a large pump, and a piece of land that 
would ordinarily take three or four men three days to 
irrigate may now be done in that many hours with the 
help of these men. A drop of two feet on two acres is 
given the tiling, and the lower end is securely closed, 
whi^h gives the water considerable back pressure. A 
section of this tiling is given in Figure 59. 

Of late years some gardeners are adopting what is 
known as the new celery culture. By this method the 
crop is planted closely, and no carting or handling is 




IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 181 

required, for as the plants struggle for light they nat- 
urally assume an upright position. The light is excluded 
below and the self-blanching kinds become white and 
tender. With so heavy a crop on the ground a great 
deal of water is necessary. One gardener plants 6x6 
inches each way, which gives a hundred and seventy 
thousand plants to the acre, and the irrigation given is 
two or three times a week. 

Beets. These need rich garden soil with plenty of 
humus. Sow from March 15 to April 15. For first 
early the Egyptian is all right, the Eclipse coming next 
in order, the Blood Turnip variety still later, while the 
mangel-wurzel, for stock feeding, comes last in plant- 
ing order. We do not believe in the practice of irrigat- 
ing the seeds before they germinate. Table beets may 
be given more irrigation than is allotted to the sugar 
beet, and for early growth they may be irrigated every 
fortnight during rainless seasons. Cultivation the sec- 
ond day after irrigation is quite as essential as the irri- 
gation itself. The soil should be kept as mellow as pos- 
sible, and it is well to have the rills located six or eight 
inches away from the plants so that water may not come 
in contact with them, as flooding is considered injurious. 

Radishes. This popular relish crop may be pro- 
duced in greatest perfection by irrigation. Light sandy 
loams well enriched are best. The first crop should be 
planted by March 15, and others at frequent intervals 
thereafter. Long scarlet varieties are preferable for this 
planting. For general summer use the early, round, 
dark red are good, and for fall and winter we sow the 
Chinese Rose. It is best to plant the seed in rows from 
sixteen to eighteen inches apart, and give an abundant 
amount of water at all stages of growth. No root crop 
requires more water than does the radish, and once a week 
during dry periods is not too often to irrigate. Culti- 
vate the same as for beets. 



182 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Carrots and Parsnips. Sow the seed a half inch 
deep, or even deeper on very light, sandy soils. The 
rows should be from sixteen to eighteen inches apart. 
Give frequent irrigation until the roots are fully formed. 
These wettings may be from four to seven days apart, 
according to the natural condition of the soil. Stop the 
irrigation as soon as the plants are large enough to shade 
the ground, as there is then danger of rotting the roots in 
the ground and thus ruining the crop. In no instance 
allow the plants to become flooded after they are half 
grown, as this would surely so injure the crowns as to 
^poil the crop. This rule must also be observed in irri- 
gating salsify, the general conditions of which are the 
same as those of carrots. With the oyster plant, cultiva- 
tion is of more value than is irrigation, and in any event 
make it a rule not to irrigate after the plant is half grown, 
or well under way. 

Turnips. The seed of the turnip may be sown as 
early in the spring as the ground can be worked. For 
fall and early winter use grow the White Dutch, for 
winter use and early spring the White Egg. The seed 
and turnips can be grown the same season. Finely pul- 
verized new soil is the best. Sow broadcast the first of 
August, drag the ground with a light harrow, then 
make irrigating furrows every six feet. Wait long ami 
patiently for the seed to germinate before irrigating for 
that purpose. Never flood the turnip ground, under- 
soaking is much the better. The best success is the 
result of careful preparation and close attention. 

Horse- Radish. This root flourishes in deep, rich, 
moist soil which can be kept so by an irrigation every 
few days. It is grown or propagated from sets or pieces 
of small roots cut at least four inches long, with the 
upper end slanting and the lower end square. The 
ground is well manured, deeply plowed and thoroughly 
harrowed or otherwise put in good condition, thru 



IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 183 

marked out in rows from two to three feet apart. In 
these the root pieces are planted, fifteen or eighteen 
inches apart. "The planting is done by making a hole 
with a long, slim dibble or planting stick, or with a 
small, light iron bar, and dropping the set, square end 
down, into it, so that the top end is left a little below 
the surface. Then press the soil firmly against the set. 
Keep the cultivator or wheel hoe going till the top 
growth renders further working unnecessary. The sets 
should be planted out in May or June. Catch crops of 
beets, lettuce and spinach can be planted along with the 
horse-radish and harvested before the horse-radish has 
made much headway. Irrigation every week until the 
sets take new root is advisable, and the growth may be 
pushed. After the plants are well established they will 
require, less water. When its roots once get into the 
soil they live and thrive until forcibly exterminated by 
being rooted up. But if allowed to grow at its own free 
will without cultivation, the plant degenerates rapidly 
and becomes, in a few years, scarcely fit for table pur- 
poses, for which it is now used. 

Onions. There are two methods of applying water 
to onions by flooding and by furrows. Some men ob- 
ject to flooding, but the writer has no objection to 
charge against it so long as it is done in the right man- 
ner. For flooding, the ground maybe laid -off in beds 
from ten to fifteen or even twenty feet in width and ten 
rods long. The size of the beds will be governed some- 
what by the water supply. The beds should be level, 
and it is better to have them level lengthwise, and they 
may have a slight incline. If the beds are level length- 
wise the soil can be wet to any desired depth. Water 
may be turned on until it stands an inch deep all over 
the bed, which would be equivalent to a rainfall of one 
and one-half to two inches, or it may be turned on to a 
depth 'of six inches, according to the requirements of 



184 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

the case. If the bed has an incline the lower end should 
be left open, allowing the water to pass off, else that end 
will receive a great deal more water and -the ground will 
become packed. 

The soil should have moisture enough at the time 
of planting to germinate the seed. If the ground con- 
tains an abundance of moisture when the seed is sown 
it may not be necessary to irrigate for a month after the 
plants are up, but the proper time to apply the water 
must be determined by each individual case. The first 
application of water in the spring should be light, as the 
soil is then loose and absorbs water much more rapidly 
than it does later in the season. As soon after irrigating 
as the soil begins to dry, and before it has had time to 
bake, it is run over with the wheel hoe, just skimming the 
surface, followed with the cultivator teeth. It then lies 
in this condition until dry enough to require another 
irrigation, and so on through the season. This leaves 
the soil loose and mellow after each irrigation, and 
thoroughly exposed to the chemical action of the 
atmosphere. During the heat of the season the crop 
will need irrigating once a week, and sometimes twice, 
depending a great deal upon the character of the soil. 
Toward the latter part of the season it is unnecessary 
to be so particular about stirring the soil after each irri- 
gation. When the first tops begin to fall down irriga- 
tion should cease. 

For furrow irrigation the onions are planted on 
level ground, the same as when irrigation is not prac- 
ticed. The rows should be about fourteen inches apart. 
Run a Planet Junior cultivator between each row. and 
the peculiar shape of the teeth will leave a small furrow, 
at the same time not throwing enough soil on either side 
to interfere with the plants. Through each one of these 
furrows run a very small stream of water, just sufficient 
to keep running but not largo enough to overflow the 



IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 185 

banks. This water passes off and must have an outlet, 
and should run in the furrows until it has soaked the 
soil to the center of the rows for about six hours. 
After the ground is sufficiently dried it is cultivated 
in the same manner as described in flooding. We 
a iv rather in favor of the furrow system, which is the 
only one to use in "the new onion culture," or the 
transplanting method. In doing this transplanting the 
water should follow in the furrow, and a slight ridge for 
the sets is preferable. It might be well to know that 
onions grown with too much water are apt to yield scul- 
lions, and the bulbs will be of inferior quality and prove 
poor keepers. In, no case would we advise irrigation 
of tener than once a week. 

String Beans. A sandy loam is better than a, 
heavier soil for this crop. The garden beans should be 
planted in rows twenty-eight or thirty inches apart, and 
they are to be drilled in on ground that has been previ- 
ously well irrigated if not damp enough already. By 
this we mean when the earth will ball in the hand. The 
first irrigation will be proper when three or four leaves 
appear on the young plants. An irrigation of three or 
four hours' duration once a week throughout the season 
will not be too frequent, and especially a good one at 
blossoming time should be given. Cultivate thoroughly 
after each irrigation. The harvest period may be pro- 
longed by planting at stated intervals. 

Peas. As a matter of fact this crop requires about 
the same treatment as do beans. The rows should, 
however, be three feet apart, and the writer prefers to 
plant on the north side of the ridge, halfway between 
the bottom and top. The pea will require plenty of 
moisture during the growing season, particularly at the 
period of bloom, which is a good rule for all the legumes. 
Mellow soil is quite a consideration, and this is a natural 
sequence with irrigation where cultivation follows. Peas 



18G IRRIGATION FARMING. 

may receive moisture every six or seven days and will 
nourish under such care. 

Tomatoes. This great crop of commerce responds 
profitably to careful irrigation. Select a sandy soil and 
make it fertile by working in from twenty to thirty loads 
of well-rotted manure, which is necessary if large and 
smooth fruit is desired. Poor soil will produce a large 
percentage of rough and deformed fruit. Plow the 
ground ten inches deep and work it down smooth with 
an Acme pulverizing harrow. Shallow furrows should 
be plowed with an eight-inch plow four feet apart. 
Take up the plants by running a sharp spade under 
them, cutting out in blocks. Havingjnade the bed quite 
wet no difficulty will be experienced in handling the 
plants, as the soil will readily adhere to the roots. For 
very large tracts it will pay to use a transplanting machine. 

The plants are placed in the bottom of the furrows 
four feet apart, and soil pulled around them with a hoe 
and well firmed with the foot. Plants treated in this 
way will grow right along, as if they never had been 
moved. The remainder of the furrow may be filled up 
by running a one-horse plow the opposite way alongside 
the plants, which will also leave a furrow for irrigating. 
AYater should then be turned on and allowed to run until 
the ground is well soaked up to the plants. The ground 
must be kept free from weeds by a narrow-bladed culti- 
vator. When the plants begin to set fruit use the one- 
horse plow again, this time running on each side of the 
row, which forms a ridge and keeps the fruit out of the 
water. AYe have found three irrigations on the very 
driest soil sufficient up to the fruiting period. Too 
much water will raise a heavy growth of vines, and in- 
terfere with the ripening of the fruit. When the plants 
need water they will turn dark in color. They need 
water nftener after the fruit begins to ripen, to keep up 

the Bi26 and weight. 



IRRIGATION OF THE GAEDEK. 187 

One drawback to the culture of tomatoes under 
irrigation is a disease known scientifically as oedema, 
which is a swelling of certain parts of the plant, brought 
about by an excess of water stretching the cell 
walls, making them very thin and the cells very 
large. The excess of water may be so great that the 
cell walls break down, and that part of the plant 
dying, exerts an injurious influence in adjacent parts. 
In an ordinary rainy season the irrigation of the 
tomato plant should be a secondary consideration. In 
ordinary moist land a good wetting just after trans- 
planting and again in ten days, with subsequent culti- 
vation, are usually quite sufficient. Too much water 
is a bad thing for tomatoes. Peppers require exactly 
the same methods. 

Cucumbers. For this crop a warm location is 
best. All vines that belong to the Cucurbita family 
must not be irrigated much while the plants are small, or 
serious damage may be done to the crop. The ground 
should be laid off by running shallow furrows about five 
feet apart. It is best to irrigate the ground before the 
seed is planted, if there seems to be a deficiency of mois- 
ture^ rather than to apply water after the seed ia sown ; 
and unless the soil is naturally a dry one it will not re- 
quire any more water until the second or rough leaf is 
formed, when another light watering will be necessary. 
Thib will push the plants along a great deal faster than 
if the ground is kept very wet. When the plants begin 
to run and set fruit an irrigation should be given every 
ten days or two weeks. While fruit is forming the irri- 
gating can hardly be overdone. The water must never 
run so as to come in direct contact with the plants, or 
the ground will bake around the stems, and may possibly 
injure the plants by stopping up the pores and excluding 
the air. Cultivation is not in good form after the vines 
begin to interlock. 



188 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Cabbage. Plant early varieties in rows two feet 
apart and eighteen inches in the row. Late kinds should 
be set three feet apart in two-foot rows. Manuring is 
quite essential, and if neglected in the preparation of 
the ground, liquid manure may easily be supplied 
through the furrows and the plants will respond readily 
by putting on a healthy growth. In transplanting, the 
water should follow the work, and another irrigation 
should be given the succeeding day ; then lapse a day 
and irrigate again. Allow two more days to go by and 
give still another but lighter irrigation. All this is done 
to assist the plants to put forth new roots and also to 
prevent wilting down. In irrigating cabbage it is essen- 
tial not to allow the water to flood the plants under any 
circumstances. If the work of preparation and planting 
is properly done the water will run through the furrows 
between the ridges, and from their termination will run 
from one furrow to another, until all the field is finally 
"covered. It is the small running stream long drawn out 
that counts, and after a cabbage patch once receives a 
good wetting subsequent irrigations need not be so pro- 
longed or copious. After the heads of the cabbage 
plants are half formed no water whatever should be 
given, on account of the excessive use of water having a 
tendency to cause the growing heads to burst. After 
the heads are fully formed the stalks may be split par- 
tially down the side three or four inches, which retards 
further expansion. 

Cauliflower. Set out and treat the same as cab- 
bages and the work is done. Irrigation is carried on 
exactly the same as for the cabbage crop, and liquid 
manuring maybe applied in the same way. We have 
found Henderson's Snowball the best early variety. 
Then in order of maturity come Extra Early Dwarf 
Erfurt and Long Island Beauty, with Ihe World Beater 
coming last. If then i : ;ny de\ iation from the cali 



IRRJGATION OF THE GARDEN. 189 

practice of irrigation, more water than that ascribed for 
the cabbage may be given. 

Watermelons. In Colorado this is often a field 
crop. The best soil for the melon patch is a sandy loam. 
This should be heavily manured. Melons of all kinds 
need an abundance of humus in order to thrive best, 
and this should be supplied in the form of stable manure. 
If manure is plentiful, scatter it thickly over the whole 
field ; if rather scarce, economize by manuring in the hills. 
Usually the ground is plowed, pulverized, then furrowed 
eight feet each way and the seeds planted about half- 
way up the sides of the ridges. It is better for the start- 
ing of the crop if rains afford moisture enough to ger- 
minate the seeds ; but in case of severe drouth, water is 
sometimes run in the rows before planting, and perhaps 
more frequently after planting. Sod ground has 
advantages in the matter of irrigation, as the soil is 
full of grass roots and exceedingly porous, thus taking 
up water readily from the bottom of the furrow, and the 
moisture finds its way to the plant from below by cap- 
illarity. Cultivation should be commenced as soon as 
the plants show above the ground, and continued at fre- 
quent intervals until the growth of the vines makes it 
impracticable. Three irrigations usually suffice if the 
soil be well cultivated, but many growers irrigate four 
to six times, making the water take the place of cultiva- 
tion. The best melons are produced with two or three 
irrigations and frequent stirring of the soil so long as 
possible. As long as the vines show a frosty appearance 
in the sunlight they are thrifty and are not suffering for 
water. In no instance should irrigation be given to the 
melon crop after the fruit is half grown, as the last days 
of the melon's existence in the field are needed for the 
chemical action that is going on in changing the juices 
into saccharine by the crystalizing process of the sun 
and the action of the air. Flooding is forbidden, as it 



190 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

bakes the ground around the younger plants and induces 
decay in the older ones. 

Cantaloupes. Lay out the rows the first week in 
May and plant the hills eight by eight feet, putting in 
long hills longitudinally with the irrigating furrows. 
Some growers turn the water right on, having given no 
irrigation before the seeds are planted. The plants 
should be irrigated very thoroughly for half a day, when 
two leaves are formed, then with a shovel plow cover the 
water in the original furrow so as to retain the moisture 
in the soil. Then take a one-horse five-shovel cultivator 
and tear up the middle ground both ways across the 
field, so as to get the best of the weeds. Take a hand 
hoe and loosen the soil around the hills. Irrigate again 
in two weeks, beginning the work at four o'clock in the 
afternoon and allowing the water to run until nine or 
ten o'clock at night. The young plants are very tender, 
and cold water is likely to check their growth, but if 
applied late in the afternoon the chill of the water is 
greatly overcome by the heat of the ground. It is best 
to furrow on one side only so as not to give too much 
water, and plant on the northern slope of the hill. 
When the plants go to vining the hilling-up is done, 
care being taken not to allow the plow to run deep, 
as there is thus danger of cutting the roots, in 
which event the vines would suffer severely. Irrigation 
should continue at intervals of every nine or ten (lay- 
throughout the season, and more water is given after the 
blossoming period than before, so as to continue the for- 
mation and encouragement of the fruit buds thus mak- 
ing the vines more prolific by continuing the bearing 
season. The vines require more water during the fruit- 
ing period, and larger and better crops will be the rule 
when plenty of water is applied at this time. 

Pumpkins. For a pumpkin patch choose a light 
soiL A sandy piece of bottom is just the thing, the 



IRRIGATION OF THE GARDEN. 191 

richer the better, though comparatively poor soil will do. 
After plowing and harrowing lay off in check rows ten 
feet each way. At each check dig a small hole and put 
in one or two forkfuls of manure, or throw out a double 
furrow with the plow and then put the manure in the 
checks. The pumpkin is a coarse feeder and does not 
need the manure to be thoroughly rotted. Cover the 
manure with three or four inches of earth, making a 
perceptible hill. Sow four or five seeds in each hill as 
soon as danger of frost is over. When in second or third 
leaf thin to two plants in a hill ; and if the ground is 
rich they may, with advantage, be again thinned to one, 
when danger from the striped bug is over, about the 
time the plants begin to run. They should be culti- 
vated alternate ways every two weeks immediately fol- 
lowing irrigation ; thus they will very soon completely 
cover the ground, and so keep the weeds down them- 
selves. No irrigation is needed after the pumpkin is 
half grown unless the season is unusually drouthy. 
Squashes, eggplants and gourds are handled practically 
in the same manner. It is a good rule to recollect that 
these vines require but comparatively little water until 
in blossom, and the greater amount of irrigation should 
be applied from that time until the fruit has grown to 
half size or over. 

Sweet Corn. Sweet corn should be cultivated 
and kept free of weeds, but irrigation must be delayed 
if possible until the corn is in tassel. As soon as the 
tassel begins to appear on the most forward stalks the 
water should be turned in and irrigation made thor- 
ough. The best method of irrigation is the furrow sys- 
tem. This should be carefully arranged so as to prevent 
the water running directly around the roots or stalks. 
A healthy, well-developed tassel makes a good crop of 
corn, hence care should be taken to prevent it from be- 
coming stunted or killed from lack of water, also to keep 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 

the water from running around the stalks. Quick growth 
will prevent this and also act as a guard against the invasion 
of worms in the ears. The common rule is not to irrigate 
corn until the leaves appear wilted in the morning. 
Though the leaves may curl during the day, as long as 
they come out bright and fresh in the morning it is best 
not to supply more water. Corn roots lie near the sur- 
face, so deep irrigation is not necessary. The water 
should be run through the rows quickly and turned off. 
As soon as in a condition to work, the surface should be 
cultivated to prevent rapid evaporation. 

Peanuts. These require a warm, sandy soil. They 
are planted in rows two and one-half feet apart and four- 
teen inches in the rows. The nuts are shelled and 
planted two or three in a hill. Cultivation is about the 
same as for potatoes. The Spanish nuts grow upright, 
similar to potato vines, while the large Virginia nuts 
have vines running upon the ground, similar to sweet 
potatoes. The upright vines should be hilled slightly 
with a small garden plow, while the others require flat 
cultivation. They will need to be irrigated about once, 
every ten days and kept clean of weeds until they com- 
mence to bloom, when they will need to be kept pretty 
well hilled up ; and if. the vines grow upwards, too much 
to take root, it would be well to put a shovelful of soil 
in the center of each vine, that is, on top of the center, 
so as to hold it down to the ground. The peanut does 
not need to have its blossoms covered, as many people 
suppose. The crop can be allowed to remain in the 
ground until the first hard frost without injury. There 
are different varieties, but the most profitable is the 
Virginia nut. They are both red and white, and the 
latter is the nut to grow for profit. The Spanish nut 
is very prolific and the best for eating. It is very 
small and never sold on the market except for confec- 
ti<;ner's use* 



IRRIGATION OF T11E GARDEN. 193 

Lettuce, Spinach and Parsley. These relishes 
are subject to the same general methods of cultivation and 
irrigation. The writer has been growing them by the 
border system. The beds within the borders should be 
rectangular, and flooding is the only method of irrigation 
in such cases. It is well to have a wetting given prelim- 
inary to sowing the seed. Irrigation is not needed again 
thereafter unless the plants show signs of wilting from 
drouth. Then on a dark day or late in the afternoon give 
a quick flooding of an inch or so and run the water off 
as quickly as possible, as no great depth of moisture is 
required by such crops, which are mostly surface feeders. 
If lettuce is to be grown for seed occasional irrigations 
may be applied throughout the summer. 

Roses. A rosebush needs water. Watering once a 
month will never produce an abundant crop of rose 
petals. The bushes seldom get more water than is good 
for their digestion. A garden hose thrust near a bush 
and the water allowed to flow freely for an hour or two 
every day will furnish enough moisture for the roots. 
Of course, when the delicate young plant is first set out 
this generous way of giving the. bush a footbath must 
not be attempted. Young plants require some protec- 
tion at night until their tissue stems have changed to 
woody fiber. On occasional days they may need gome 
shelter from a too ardent sun. The soil about the rose- 
bush needs occasional loosening. Virgin soil needs but 
little fertilizing aid, as a general thing, but a bucketful 
of barnyard manure spread over the ground and often 
flooded with water never harms a growing plant. It 
does rosebushes but little harm to cut off the tops of the 
more thrifty growing stems, and this plan generally re- 
sults in a better crop of roses, but too much trimming 
and pruning is bad. We would not advise irrigation of 
the rose or any other bush, tree or shrub after the middle 
of August, or the first of September at the very latest. 
13 



CHAPTER XIV. 

IRRIGATION FOR THE ORCHARD. 

As in garden irrigation, it is advisable to so arrange 
or lay out the tract that those crops which require the 
least water will receive the least, and vice versa. In 
other words, do not mix everything in planting, so that 
the trees will have to be irrigated every time the small 
fruits are watered. We regard this an important pre- 
caution. However commendable impartiality may be as 
a maxim of irrigation, it will be found unsafe when ap- 
plied to the details of water distribution. Plant the 
cherry trees, for example, where t>hey will get the least 
irrigation. Next to them the pears and apples, although 
the latter will need considerable water the first season 
after planting. It is safe to say that a well-established 
orchard would not ordinarily require more than three 
good irrigations during the year. Some would do with 
less, but this would be about the average. 

As to the manner of running water, we would say 
that our experience leads us to prefer a head of water 
just sufficient to send a moderate stream gradually along 
the rows. This enables the moisture to penetrate the 
s<>il more thoroughly than a rapid current would do. If 
practicable, water should be run on both sides of the 
row. This is especially desirable in the case of forest or 
other trees on land that receives little or no cultivation. 
On most grounds water is usually r;in along several row- 
at the same time. Now and then soil is found that will 
admit of rapid irrigation, or, as it is sometimes called, 
sending the water alonir with a rush. .Hut this is the 

194 



IRRIGATION FOR THE ORCHARD. 195 



exception. Of course, where water is scarce and one is 
limited to a certain time in its use, the best that can be 
done is to use it us circumstances will permit. When the 
water has run its course turn it off. Do not let it soak 
and flood the ground. 

In orchard irrigation it is a good rule never to apply 
water so long as the sub-surface soil say at a depth of 
six^r eight inches will ball in the hand ; and this is a 
test that should often be resorted to during the growing 
season. The yield may be largely increased by the judi- 
cious application of water. That the fruit may also be 
increased in size and made more attractive is equally 
certain. At the same time judgment is required for the 
best results. Indeed, positive harm may be done by un- 
timely irrigation, not only to tree and plant, but to the 
land as well. Incessant watering without regard to the 
condition of the soil or the needs of the plant will often 
force a growth of wood at the expense of the fruit prod- 
uct and the fruit flawr. It may likewise cause a 
growth to be made which the succeeding winter finds 
immature and unable to withstand its tests. This will 
almost certainly be the result with any tree or plant that 
has a tendency to make a strong or succulent growth. 
Whenever late frosts are feared turn on the irrigation 
water in the orchard, and unless the frost is very heavy 
no damage will be done to the fruit. Irrigate not later 
than the latter part of August or the first days of Sep- 
tember, so as to give the wood a chance to ripen. When 
water can be had irrigate once more in November or 
December, for the winters in irrigating countries are 
generally very dry, but never use more water than is 
needed to keep the soil moderately moist during winter. 

Planting. A good idea of an irrigated orchard 
may be gleaned from the diagram of Figure 60. At a is 
the ditch, b are the checks in the ditch, and c the head- 
gates of the furrows. 



196 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



Plow and subsoil repeatedly so as to thoroughly pul- 
verize to a depth of twelve to eighteen inches. When 
planting upon lawns or grass plots remove the sod for a 
diameter of four or five feet, and keep this space well 
worked and free from weeds. Dig the hole deeper and 
larger than is necessary to admit all the roots in their 
natural position, keeping the surface and subsoil sepa- 



t 



e 



ft. 



fl .ft 



a 



ft ft 



fe t H 



f $> 



ft 



ft- ft 



fi 



(i 






B 



SOUTH 



FIO. GO. DIAGRAM OF AX ORCHARD. 

rate. Cut off the broken and bruised roots and shorten 
the tops to half a dozen good buds, except for fall 
planting, when it is better to defer top-pruning until 
the following spring. If not prepared to plant when 
the stock arrives, heel in by digging a trench deep enough 
to admit all the roots, and set the trees therein aa 
thick as they can stand, carefully packing the earth 



IRRIGATION FOR THE ORCHARD. 1U7 

about the roots and taking up when required. Never 
leave the roots exposed to the sun and air, and puddle 
before planting. Fill up the hole with surface soil, so 
that the tree, after the earth has settled, will stand about 
as it did when in the nursery, but dwarf pears 
should be planted deep enough to cover the quince 
stock, upon which they are budded, two or three inches. 
Work the Foil thoroughly among the roots, and when 
well covered tamp firmly. Set the trees as firmly as a 
post, but leave the surface filling light and loose. No 
staking will be required except with very tall trees. 
Xever let manure come in contact with the roots. As 
soon as planted water thoroughly. 

Apple trees can be planted twenty-eight or thirty 
feet each way, or twenty-four by thirty-six feet, and a 
pear, cherry, plum or peach planted between the apple 
trees in the thirty-six foot space. Easpberries, gooseber- 
ries and currants can be planted in the rows between 
the trees, as they require about the same irrigation. 
Strawberries can be planted in rows four feet apart be- 
tween the tree rows. Some will say this makes a ragged 
looking orchard. It does if the trees and bushes are 
never trimmed, and were planted with no order or sys- 
tem. In transplanting trees it is well to have the ditch 
water follow in a furrow close to the tree row, so that no 
time will be lost in moistening the ground and starting 
the young tree on its new life. A newly set orchard 
will require more water the first year than any succeed- 
ing year, and the writer has made it a point to irrigate 
every fortnight the first year until September, when all 
water is shut off. 

Cultivation. The tendency of many inexperienced 
orchardists is to irrigate too frequently and too much at 
times when water is plentiful, and to endeavor to make 
this take the place of cultivation. This is a practice 
very destructive to the growth of all kinds of fruit trees, 



198 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

especially in heavy soils. The tendency of the soil after 
each irrigation is to sun-bake, and thus prevent a free 
circulation of air through it. It is for this reason that 
cultivation almost immediately after the water is drawn 
off is requisite to successful orchard growth under irri- 
gation. Often a thorough stirring of the soil is as good, 
if not better, than an irrigation. Seasons also differ. 
During some the rainfall is sufficient to carry trees well 
into the summer without irrigation. If summer and 
winter mulching is practiced, less water is required, be- 
cause a good mulch arrests evaporation and preserves an 
even temperature around the tree. In fact, we have 
known orchards with a good mulch and thorough culti- 
vation to pass through the season with but one watering. 
Occasionally the soil is sufficiently moist to permit of 
this without a mulch if the cultivation is good. But 
these instances are, of course, the exception, and will 
not do for a guide in any general sense. 

The writer cultivates his orchard mostly with a 
double shovel five times a year, allowing no grass or 
weeds to grow, as they greatly aid in harboring mice. 
We do not grow corn or small grain in the orchard, as 
these crops take the substance of the soil needed for the 
trees, which are certainly of sufficient importance to have 
the benefit of the entire ground. Melons can be grown 
without detriment. Put no crop in the orchard after 
the third year. Mulching to delay blooming is not a 
success. The California plan is to plow the orchard 
twice annually, the first time as early as February, and 
again in April. Plow away from the trees the first 
time and towards the trees the second time. They 
keep up the cultivation almost constantly throughout 
the summer, whether irrigation is given or not. Some 
men use a chisel tooth cultivator, while others use a 
gang plow. The duck-foot cultivator is a very common 
implement and gives good satisfaction, while some men 



IRRIGATION FOIl T1IK ORCHARD. 199 

go so far as to employ the one-horse weeder, in connec- 
tion with other tools; Sandy soils do not require so 
much plowing as does a stiff soil, and for the latter tho 
rolling cutter has been recommended. Old-fashioned 
farmers still use the drag harrow. 

The author deprecates the use of whippletrees in an 
orchard, and uses the patent steel harness, that is devoid 
of these dangerous things, in orchard cultivation. It is 
well to observe the flat system of cultivation, and to 
harrow or scarify the land both ways after each irriga- 
tion. By this method the land is easily kept free from 
weeds, and evaporation by capillary attraction is pre- 
vented. New irrigating furrows should be marked out 
with a shovel plow or a ditcher just before each irrigation ; 
throw the earth back again after irrigation so as to 
better retain the moisture that has been given. It is 
well to remember that irrigation can better be dispensed 
with than can cultivation. 

Apples. This king of fruits may be irrigated in 
many ways, and a liberal quantity of water is advisable. 
We have noticed one thing about growing apples under 
irrigation. By giving them plenty of water when they 
are attaining full size, or are nearly full grown, they 
receive more sap and attain fully one-eighth more weight 
or specific gravity, compared with similar fruit of 
the same size. The color of the apple is also greatly 
improved in this way, and it puts on a polish that could 
not be attained without irrigation. The character- 
istic of polishing nicety is noticed principally in the Ben 
Davis and Jonathan varieties. If the early spring sea- 
son has been dry the orchard should be irrigated just as 
soon as the canals are carrying water. If no other cir- 
cumstances arise it may be deemed advisable to irrigate 
again every month until the last of August, when water 
should be discontinued from all fruits. Young trees 
will take more water than older ones, and a wetting at 



200 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

the time the fruit buds are appearing is quite essential. 
Give no water at the time of blossoming. After the 
fruit is half grown it can be forced to greater size by 
copious irrigations. The apple attains one-tenth of its 
final size during the last month of maturity. Russian 
varieties have thick, leathery foliage which cannot ivad- 
ily transpire, and for this reason but very little water 
should be given at any time. 

Pear. This valuable fruit will succeed in most 
kinds of soil, but nourishes best in rich loamy, or heavy 
red clayish, or sandy soils. The latter is especially 
adapted to it if it carries the oxide of iron, an element 
quite common in many of the mountain districts of the 
far West. The best kinds to plant for permanent 
orchard are the standard sorts budded on pear stock, 
which if well cared for should stand for two hundred years. 
The planting should be sixteen or twenty feet apart. 
Dwarf pears are best budded on the quince, although* 
this practice forces their blooming period and places 
them in more imminent danger of spring frosts. Gen- 
erally speaking, the same amount of water is required 
as for the apple and plum, and the same general rules, 
particularly as to cultivation, should be followed. The 
fruit should never be allowed to become thoroughly ripe 
on the trees. 

Quince. The quince is a valuable fruit that should 
find a place in every orchard. In many respects it is 
superior to pears for home use and is very good for mar- 
keting. There are but a few varieties from which to 
select. The Orange is probably the best to plant. The 
Portugal is a fancy variety because of its crimson appear- 
ance when cooked. Two choice varieties, known as the 
Van Deman and Santa Rosa, have recently been intro- 
duced. A deep, rich soil free from too much moisture 
is the most suitable for (lie quince. It does not require 
much irrigation. If over-irrigated the trees will become 



IRRIGATION FOR THE ORCHARD. 201 

sickly, and the leaves will take on a yellow, deadly color. 
The trees should be pruned so as to insure good crops 
and fine specimens. The irrigation furrows should be 
opened so as to give a downward tendency to the roots. 
The closest cultivation is to be given and the greater 
quantity of water for a season should be applied after 
the fruit is half grown. The quince may be planted in 
the apple orchard and irrigated in the same way. A 
pound or two of common salt should be scattered around 
I'ac-li tree in the spring. 

Plum. This crop is best grown on heavy loam soil 
or heavy clayish sandy soil, but will generally get along 
on any kind of soil. Close planting of different varieties 
together is advisable on account of the necessity of com- 
plete pollen ization. Native American kinds make the 
best stock to bud upon. The plum may well succeed 
the apple for position in an orchard, as it requires as 
much water, applied in virtually the same way. The 
wild sorts may often be found growing along perennial 
streams, with roots constantly in the moisture, and these 
trees are always reliable for bearing year after year. An 
even tenure of moisture throughout the growing season 
would seem to be a normal condition for success with 
plums. 

Prunes are becoming a great crop in many of the 
irrigated portions of Western America, and these locali- 
ties will some day produce a sufficiency of dried fruit to 
drive the foreign article almost entirely out of the mar- 
ket. The best California experience is to begin the 
preparation of the soil for a prune orchard some time 
previous to planting. It is desirable to thoroughly and 
deeply plow in the fall, exposing the surface to the air 
during the winter. Wherever there is hardpan it should 
be well broken up. In many instances the soil is ferti- 
lized, and in all cases it is well stirred and evenly har- 
rowed. The proper preparation of the soil is a matter 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 

of much care and study. The square system is generally 
preferred in planting, the object being to economize the 
ground as much as possible, at the same time giving 
proper consideration to the facility of future care and 
having an eye to the appearance of the orchard. In the 
sijuare system the land is laid off in lines crossing each 
other, trees being planted at each crossing. They are 
placed twenty feet apart, so that 108 trees are included 
in an acre. By the quincunx system, which is similar 
to the square except that the rows are doubled and a 
tree planted in the center of each square, 199 trees to 
the acre are provided for, but this is generally with a 
yiew to the future removal of the center trees. By the 
hexagonal system six trees form a hexagon and enclose 
a seventh, 126 being planted to each acre. The trian- 
gular system is similar to the square except that a line 
is run diagonally across and a tree planted alternately, 
forming a triangle. 

The prune needs ail the strength of the soil. There 
is none to be spared for weeds. It needs the moisture 
and the vitalizing forces of the air about its roots. 
Thorough cultivation and pulverization secures this. 
The ground is deeply plowed in the spring, except near 
the tree rows, where the work must be more shallow. 
Harrowing follows plowing, and then a cultivator or 
weed cutter is run through the orchard three or four 
times in the course of the year. The object is to leave 
a perfectly level and soft surface. The prune bears lu-av- 
ily and thus requires an ample supply of moisture. 
Prunes will make from forty to sixty, instead of one hun- 
dred and twenty, to the pound when liberally supplied 
with water. The best results from applying water are 
those obtained during the latter half of the fruit's 
development. 

The Peach is the popular crnj) with those who 
are situated so fortunately as to grow it. A high, sandy, 



IKKKiATioN FOIL T1IK ORCHARD. XMKJ 

well-imdcrtlraini'd soil is best for the peach, and mucli 
"puttering around " in the soil preparation can lie << m- 
mended. Leave nothing undone in preparing the plant- 
ing ground. The trees should stand fifteen to eighteen 
feet apart and should never he older than one year from 
the bud. All branches should be removed at time of 
planting, allowing nothing to stand but the straight 
trunk, which should be cut back to three feet. A north- 
ern exposure, or locations exposed to cool breezes night 
-and day in early spring, and where the frost remains in 
the ground late in the spring, are natural advantages. 
The soil should always be cultivated and nothing but 
hoed crops should be grown in the orchard. After the 
trees come into bearing nothing should be grown, as 
they will need all the substance. 

Cultivation should begin with the opening of spring, 
and be kept up until the fruit is plucked. The shorten- 
ing in of all new growth, and cutting away of all dead and 
injured wood, must be carefully attended to. During 
the first year the irrigation should be given in furrows 
along each side of the row, and some growers even go so 
far as to make borders around the trees, with dirt piled 
against the trunks so as to prevent contact from water. 
The water is turned on only as often as the condition of 
the soil demands. Great injury is often resultant from 
indiscriminate use of w r ater in peach culture. In irrigated 
countries the majority of orchardists will turn on the 
water when the topsoil looks dry, whereas if they would 
but examine the earth at the roots they would find it 
damp enough. During the second year it is the custom 
of some growers to make one border between the rows, 
and irrigate the entire intermediary space in this way. 
This is done by Mr. James Curry of Espanola, New 
Mexico, who is one of the best peach growers- in the 
West. After a good soaking a thorough harrowing and 
leveling down is given. The furrow would answer just 



204 IRIUi.ATIOX 1-AKMIM.. 

as well and would require less water. Mature trees 
should be well watered from the time the fruit is set 
until September 1, after which the 'irrigations are with- 
held until December, when the trees are again watered 
to go into winter quarters. On no account should water 
be applied at or near the blooming period, as the ten- 
dency would be to blast the prospects of a good yield. 
With too much water, that is, when the irrigations are 
too frequent, the leaves of the trees will often turn yel- 
low, owing to the depletion of chlorophyl caused by 
over-irrigation. Modern growers of peach trees north 
of the 38th parallel have adopted the plan of laying 
down their trees in winter and covering them with 
earth, root, stem and branch, keeping them buried 
until blossoming time in the spring. Wetting the roots 
at burying time assists in bending the tree down. 

Apricots should be planted, pruned, cultivated 
and irrigated the same as the peach. Alkali soil is not 
a detriment to the apricot if not too strong, and often 
gets the blame that belongs to irrigation. Young apri- 
cot trees, after bearing their first crop, should be pruned 
at once, and the lateral branches only should be short- 
ened in. If irrigation is employed, then water and cul- 
tivation must be applied immediately in order to start 
the tree growing, so that it may develop fruit buds for 
the next year's crop. If the tree lias borne very heav- 
ily and the wood growth has been light, better not prune 
at all, but do not neglect cultivation after the crop is 
gathered. As this tree gets older it needs scarcely any 
pruning. 

The Cherry. This fine pit fruit is most often 
planted on very light soils, fifteen to eighteen feet apart. 
and is at home on ridge land. Trees may be planted in 
apple orchards, but the irrigation system should be li - 
tinct from that of the apple trees. Mulching is not i - 
ommended, as it induces the roots to take <>n an upward 



IKUIGATIOX FOR THE ORCHARD. 206 

tendency, which is to be discountenanced in all irrigated 
fruits. Cherry trees drop blossoms and fruit sometimes 
because of a deficiency of lime in the soil ; sometimes 
drouth may cause them to drop, and if the trees have 
been growing strongly by too much irrigation, unripe 
wood may have had something to do with it. In the 
latter case lime worked into the soil would liaVe an in- 
fluence for the better. Much good may be done in a 
dry season by irrigating the trees every ten days after 
the blossoming period and up to the ripening of the 
fruit. Once thereafter is usually all the w r ater they will 
need in a season. ' Irrigations should generally be of 
quick duration, so that the land shall not become soaked 
or water-logged. Great caution is advised in applying 
water to cherry trees of Russian origin, and they actually 
require but slight moisture to grow and fruit at their 
best. This from the fact that they come from the high 
and dry steppes of Russia and naturally need but little 
water. 

The Orange. The orange tree requires an abun- 
dance of moisture, and its need of more water is indi- 
cated by the curling of its leaves ; but excessive irrigation 
gives rise to diseased conditions, manifested by gum, 
yellowing of the leaves and other troubles. The system 
of irrigation mostly practiced consists in running the 
water in finely divided streams through furrows three 
feet apart between the rows of trees from a head ditch, 
using about twenty inches at a time for ten acres, and 
continuing the irrigation until the ground is wet to a 
depth of three or four feet. The irrigation should 
always be followed by cultivation as soon as the condi- 
tion of the soil will permit, and cultivation be continued 
at intervals for six or eight weeks before another irriga- 
tion is given. 

The first year of planting very little irrigation is 
required. In some orchards, after the trees are se.t out 



HIKIGATIOX FOR THE ORCHARD 20? 

a furrow is run alongside the row with a plow, then 
water is run down, and a basin made around each tree. 
This basin is allowed to fill, then it is dammed up and 
the water run to the next. When the water has disap- 
peared the ground is leveled to prevent the too rapid 
evaporation of moisture. This system is continued until 
the tree becomes at least four years old. After that the 
orchard is checked off into squares, which are filled up. 
In the same way a furrow is run down the rows on either 
side, and the water running in this furrow will soak 
through. But this practice is not so good as the one 
that allows the water to soak in the squares, as when 
the water runs down it will carry with it the necessary 
fertilizing elements from the trees nearest the ditch. 
Trees are irrigated during the season as late as October, 
or even later, without any injury. Four or five wettings 
of an orange grove in a season are usually sufficient. 

Lemons and Limes. The highest and driest 
part of the orchard is the most appropriate place upon 
which to plant the lemon or the lime tree. It requires 
a point almost free from frost, and if planted in any 
other place will probably be a failure. After selecting 
the proper location the soil should be well broken, so 
that the roots can utilize the elements of the subsoil. 
The trees should be planted about twenty-five feet apart 
and to a depth of two and a half feet, according to the 
size of the tree. Before planting be sure to cut all par- 
ticles of damaged roots away. Water should be run 
around the tree a short time to settle the soil, before the 
last fe\v shovelfuls of earth are put in. The time to 
plant varies according to the place, but March and April 
are the months generally conceded by growers in the 
citrus districts to be the best months. The general 
ground plan of the lemon grove should be the same as 
that described for the orange, and application of water 
is made in much the same way. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THi: VINEYARD AXD SMALL FRUITS. 

Grapes are among the most variable of fruits even in 
their wild state, in which climate, soil, shade, humidity 
and perhaps natural hybridization have originated such 
a multiplicity of forms that it is often difficult to dis- 
tinguish the original types and to refer the different 
forms to their proper alliances. There are many varie- 
ties that thrive well on heavy black loamy sandy soils, 
some do splendidly on the adobe or clayey soils, and 
many do all that is possible on red clayish sandy soils. 
The former and the latter are adapted to the successful 
cultivation of more varieties than is the adobe. 

The Best Soils. The soil best suited to the 
grape, however, is a loose, porous one, not very wet and 
not underlaid with water. Whether the soil is sand or 
clay is not so important as its porosity and ability to 
quickly lose its excess of moisture after an irrigation or a 
drenching rain. Grapevines should not be planted clos- 
er than eisrht feet, and after the first year no crop should 
be grown between the rows. If the vineyard is large, 
roadways should be left to haul into it manure and to 
haul out of it the grapes. The lack of success in cultivat- 
ing the grape on adobe soil is caused by excessive irriga- 
tion too much water on the surface keeping the soil 
cold, and invariably turning the leaves yellow. "When 
there is a porous subsoil grapes do better on an adobe 
soil. A soil that contains much alkali is not good for 
grapes. What would be called a sandy soil with a porous 
subsoil has so far proved to be the best, and the soil 

208 



VINEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS. 209 

should be rich enough to raise a good crop of corn. 
Constant evaporation of water from the surface of the 
soil keeps it cold. A warm soil is what makes a good 
grape. <! rapes can be raised with but little water, but 
the fruit will be small and the bunches imperfect. 

Planting. Nearly all the vines sold by nurserymen 
are from cuttings. Some growers use but a single bud, 
which requires but a short piece of the vine. Care 
should be taken to have the soil in good condition, 
well pulverized, and containing sufficient moisture. The 
cutting should be placed near the surface with the bud 
turned up. In order to retain the moisture in the soil 
it is desirable to use mulching, for without moisture 
there can be no rooting. The use of a single bud is bet- 
ter adapted to the nursery than to field growth. In the 
use of long cuttings some use only the growth of the last 
season, and some use a single piece of the vine having a 
portion of the older growth as well as the new. But the 
first named is the more usual practice. The length of 
cuttings is usually eighteen to twenty inches. Cuttings 
can be taken from the vines any time after the fall of 
the leaf, and before the spring flow of the sap begins, but 
before January 1 is better than after. Keep them dor- 
mant until the time comes to set them out in the vine- 
yard, by placing them in a shallow trench, top down, on 
the north side of a building. Cover the butts with loose 
earth and place over that some straw and boards. Take 
care that the trench is in moist but not wet earth, as too 
much moisture causes the cuttings to decay. There is 
as much need of deep and fine working of the soil, press- 
ing it around the cuttings, and for careful culture dur- 
ing the growing season, as there is for the treatment of 
fruit tree seedlings or root grafts. In planting a vine- 
yard the vines are placed eight feet apart each way, ex- 
cept in the case of raisin grapes, when space must be 
provided to spread trays on which the grapes are to 
14 



210 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

be dried. Such plantations are made with the vines 7x10,. 
or 8x10, or even 4^x11 feet. There is a great variation 
in the distances. When planting the vines all dead roots 
should be cut off and the top cut back to two buds 
or eyes. The holes for planting should be large enough 
to allow the roots to be spread out in a natural position 
and the earth should be packed carefully around all the 
roots. If the soil is not moist when the vines are plant- 
ed, they should be irrigated at once, or what is better 
still the ground should be well soaked by flooding or 
otherwise before the planting is done. 

Cultivation. Grapevines the first year after 
planting should be cultivated the same as corn, using first 
a two-horse corn cultivator straddling the rows and after- 
wards passing between them, working the land four 
times during the season, and also using a hoe near the 
vines. It pays a large percent on the investment to keep 
the ground mellow and clean. When the ground is kept 
mellow a harrow is a good tool with which to kill small 
weeds, using it between the periods of cultivation. Do 
not attempt to practice economy by planting some other 
crop among the grapevines. What is planted may do 
well but the vines must suffer. Grapes the second year 
after planting need the very best care and cultivation 
that can be given them, for this is the year the canes grow 
that bear the first crop of fruit. During the growing sea- 
son of that year great care should be taken to preserve 
from two to four canes for bearing fruit the next year, by 
tying them up to stakes or training them on wires. 

In trellising posts may be set either in winter or 
spring, and one wire stretched eighteen inches from the 
ground, on which to fasten shoots during their growth- 
one extended each way. By fall these arms will be from 
six to ten feet long and should be cut back to within 
three or four feet of the ground. The next sprinir thnr 
more wires should be stretched, twelve inches jipjirt. above- 



VINEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS. 211 

the lower wire. The vines should then be tied horizon- 
tally along the lower wire, the same as the season before. 
After growth commences pinch off the buds so that the 
shoots will be from ten to twelve inches apart. As these 
grow, train them perpendicularly and tie them to the 
wires above. No fruit should be allowed to set that sea- 
son above the second wire from the ground. As these 
shoots grow pinch them back during the season, after 




FIG. 62. TRELLJSED VINEYARD. 

they get above the top wire of the trellis. Laterals will 
then grow and part of them can be pinched off. A well- 
appointed trellised vineyard is to be seen in Figure 62. 

One of the best tools with which to cultivate is a 
one-horse plow with five shovels. A one-horse harrow 
will also be a very useful aid. The vineyard does not 
need to be cultivated very deep, but often. The third 
and after years, vines must be well cultivated not less 



212 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

than four times, and six would be better. It will also be 
necessary to hoe them several times during the season. 

Irrigation. The amount of water used and the time 
for using it depends entirely upon the quality of the soil. 
Give a good soaking about once in two weeks, not often- 
er. When you do irrigate, irrigate thoroughly or not at 
all. The second season once in three weeks will be 
enough. In all cases follow the watering with the culti- 
vation, as described, and do not think of giving the one 
without the other. After the vines are bearing heavily 
they may be watered more liberally. However, even 
then no more than two irrigations are recommended for 
compact soils. And even in the lightest and sandiest 
soils irrigations at periods of less than ten days are not 
practicable. On these light and sandy soils, however, 
irrigation must be much more frequent than on heavier 
ones. 

The European varieties are especially susceptible to 
over-irrigation. They are not slow in calling a halt 
where too much surface water is applied. The vines 
grow fast and appear to be doing well under repeated 
irrigations ; but the fruit is practically a failure. Where 
there is any moisture in the soil from fall irrigation or 
winter rains it is advisable to delay irrigation till the fruit 
is forming, and then apply the water but once or twice 
at the most. Never irrigate during the opening of the 
flower, the least possible during the days before, and by 
preference irrigate when the fruit begins to enlarge. 
For inexperienced people, it is more prudent to irrigate 
in trenches passing near the plants, and not by flooding 
the whole surface of the ground. 

One must introduce in the soil alternately much air 
and little water. Take as a guide for cultivating, the 
state of the soil ; and for irrigating, the condition of the 
plant. These very simple principles are not generally 
understood by those who have not practiced irrigation 



VINEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS. 213 

they give too much water and too little cultivation, and, 
above all, give them at improper times. Sub-surface 
irrigation is well adapted to grape culture, as the roots 
all penetrate to great depth. Where underground pipes 
are laid near the roots of the vine, they will in a measure 
overcome the bad effects of over-irrigation, and carry 
away much of the surface surplus water. In fertilizing 
grapevines the best method is to place the manure on 
the soil between the vines in rows, and let its strength, 
penetrate to the roots. 

Raspberries. Any land that will produce good 
crops of corn or wheat is suitable for raspberries, and, 
unlike strawberries, they are benefited by a good deal of 
shade. Prepare the ground thoroughly and manure lib- 
erally. Ground bone is a specific fertilizer for the rasp- 
berry. Keep the soil loose and free of weeds throughout 
the season, cutting down the suckers with a hoe or cul- 
tivator, and leaving only three or four canes to a hill or 
single row for fruiting. Aim to plant an assortment, so 
as to lengthen the fruiting season. The red varieties 
should be planted for field culture, in rows six feet apart 
and the plants three feet distant in rows, thus requiring 
2400 plants to the acre ; or four feet each way if to be 
cultivated in hills, requiring 2700 plants to the acre. 
It is best to place two plants in each hill, taking, of 
course, double the number. In garden culture plant 
three feet apart each way and restrict to hills. As soon 
as planted cut back the canes to within a few inches of 
the ground, and plants set in autumn should have the 
soil mounded up over them to protect them from fre- 
quent freezing and thawing. In spring the earth should 
be leveled down again. In pruning the bearing canes 
cut them back one-half their length on an average, but 
all of the same hight from the ground. The red rasp- 
berry requires a good deal of moisture, and if planted in 
shady places irrigation need not be so frequent as when 



214 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

occupying dry positions. Raspberries can be planted 
between the rows in an apple orchard, and in this way 
they would necessarily receive the same amount of irri- 
gation and cultivation. It is quite essential to irrigate 
raspberries as soon as the canes are planted, and if an 
even moisture is kept in the soil throughout the growing 
season the plants will continue to thrive. It is not ad- 
visable to irrigate during the week of blossoming, and 
water must be withheld after the first of September. 
"We make it a rule to. irrigate raspberries after each pick- 
ing, as this seems to hasten the maturity of the fruit and 
develop larger and more salable berries. Black raspber- 
ries do not demand as much shade or irrigation as do the 
red varieties. In October the canes should be laid down 
and covered with earth for the winter, and it is advis- 
able always to irrigate the entire plantation before the 
canes are uncovered in the spring, particularly if the 
ground is dry at that time. 

Blackberries. These canes should be laid down 
in the fall before all the leaves have fallen, for if delayed 
until later the canes are likely to snap and break. Irri- 
gate generally the same as for raspberries, and give heed 
to plenty of water during the fruiting period. A safe 
rule at this time would be to irrigate the rows once a 
wec-k, and keep off the. water just as soon as fruitage is 
over, in order that the wood may harden preparatory for 
winter. Too much water during the warmer days of 
summer is likely to encourage the tendency to rust, and 
this is a matter that must be guarded against by the 
careful irrigator. Dewberries are a species of vine black- 
berries that may be treated the same as the cane fruits 
only that they are capable of taking more^ater through- 
out the season, but may require less, as their foliage is 
calculated to shade the ground in such a way as to pre- 
vent loss of moisture by evaporation. The dewberry 
will generally take care of all the water that may be 



VINEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS. 215 

given it in moderate doses, and the actual condition of 
the soil should govern the number of irrigations. 

Gooseberries. This fruit is not grown so com- 
monly as it might be, and may be called the neglected 
child of the garden. Prepare the soil in the spring by 
deep plowing digging is even better. Turn it over to 
the depth of two feet by first opening a trench, say two 
feet wide, across the patch. Spread on the surface of 
the ground well-decomposed manure, not less than three 
inches deep, while six inches will do better. Then turn 
it all over into the trench already opened. Do this until 
the whole of the ground is well cultivated to the depth 
of two feet, then plant out the bushes four feet apart 
sich way and keep them well cultivated all through the 
summer. In the fall give a good top-dressing of well- 
rotted stable manure. Let the winter snow come on it 
to leach down to the roots. When spring opens turn it 
all into the ground, and the foundation is laid for pro- 
ducing good gooseberries. During winter prune the 
bushes vigorously. Have one main trunk if possible, 
and a head composed of about six branches. Pinch out 
the growth during summer, where it is not wanted, and 
prune back in winter fully one-third of the cummer's 
growth. The object is to let plenty of light and air into 
the head of the bush. This will prevent every sign of 
mildew. If these directions are followed, always bearing 
in mind to stimulate by annually manuring and thinning 
out the fruit, berries can be produced of the Whitesmith, 
Crown Bob or Lancashire Red varieties that will be one 
and a half inches in length. Two or three good irriga- 
tions during the fruiting season should be given, and 
once a month prior thereto ought to be sufficient. 

Currant culture should be carried out in much the 
same way. The actual water required does not differ at 
all from that demanded by the gooseberry, and the cul- 
tivation of the ground is identically the same. After 



216 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

three years old, all old wood should be cut from the cur- 
rant bushes, and thus the bush be renewed from year to 
year. Besides, new growth should be continually short- 
ened-in during the growing season to stimulate produc- 
tion of side branches. Even the laterals should be 
nipped in a few inches. This will form a strong bush 
and increase the fruit. There should be an abundance 
of moisture at fruitage, as it will greatly aid fruit devel- 
opment in size, yield and general appearance. For lack 
of better sorts the writer is growing the old-fashioned 
Red Dutch with marked success, but the war upon 
insects is no small part of the labor involved. 

Capers. These Asiatic shrubs are not grown much 
in America although their culture here, especially in the 
arid regions under irrigation, is practicable and will some 
day become quite general. The shrub is multiplied by 
seeds, cuttings or layerings. Plant in the same way as 
for the grapevine, but in holes less deep, and with 
shorter cuttings. Sow the seeds in February, or earlier 
if the climate permits, anywhere in the garden, as lettuce 
or cabbage seeds are sown, then later on dig out and 
transplant. Irrigate at once, and again in a few days if 
the plants show si^ns of faltering. Replace, the first 
year, all that may die. Plant in squares from four to 
five feet distant. Weed very much the first year, and 
less the following years. Prune the plants each year In- 
cutting the branches nearest the trunk. If in a country 
where it does not freeze, prune in the fall ; if in a coun- 
try where the winters are severe, trim the branches at 
eight inches in the fall, cover up with earth before cold 
weather, and in the spring uncover the plants and trim 
shorter. Manure now and airain. and by preference use 
bone powder. Irrigate only when the plant suffers and 
shows the need of water. 

Strawberries. If one wishes to experiment in a 
email way on the efficacy of irrigation, a strawberry bed 



VINKYAHD AND SMALL FRUITS. 



is a good thing upon which to practice. Strawberries 
do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule the deep, 
moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or 
swampy spots, however, should be avoided. It is the 
common experience that light, warm soils yield the ear- 
liest and highest flavored berries, and heavy soils the 
later and larger ones; but the size of the berry depends 
more upon the supply of available moisture, and im^ 
mense fruit can be produced on loose, open soils by free 
irrigation and the application of plenty of manure. Yet 
the heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fer- 
tility and retention of moisture, is preferred for the 
strawberry. 

Plants for setting out are secured by taking off the 
small growths rooted from runners. The strongest 
plants are those nearest to the parent plant. They may 
be set out either in the spring or fall, or at any time 
when the ground is warm and in good condition. At 
planting shorten the roots to three inches, and be sure 
the plants do not become dry while the planting pro- 
ceeds. It is advisable to carry the plants in a bucket 
that has water in it. If plants have been received by 
mail or express, they are invigorated by soaking in water 
a few hours before planting. 

Preparing the Soil. The first essential for suc- 
cess in strawberry growing is to plow or dig the soil at 
least ten inches deep, and during the fall or early win- 
ter months work in deeply as much composted cow and 
hen manure as the soil will hold. Have the surface thor- 
oughly pulverized and graded in the spring so that the 
water will flow slowly in the ditches. The spring plow- 
ing should be shallow. There are various ways of lay- 
ing out strawberry plantations. Some give flat cultiva- 
tion" and plant in single rows two and a half or three feet 
apart. Others make low ridges two and a half to three 
feet wide, while between the ridges is a furrow for irri- 



218 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

gation which also serves for a passage when the beds are 
being weeded or the fruit gathered. It is best to arrange 
these furrows so that the water runs down one furrow 
and back in the next, the fall of the land not being as 
the furrows run, but from the first to the last. Before 
planting, the water should be run on, so as to see that 
the irrigation is so arranged that it just reaches to within 
two inches of the edges of the ridges. 

Planting and Cultivating. The plants should 
be set out a foot apart on the south side of the ridges, 
two inches above the watermark, so that the water will 
not run over the crowns. They then draw up the mois- 
ture through the roots by capillary attraction, and the 
surface of the beds does not bake as it would do by flood- 
ing. The fruit is not damaged by muddy water. In 
transplanting, it is best to have the roots spread out fan- 
shaped, and the soil should be well packed around them, 
which we consider of great importance. Plant, if possi- 
ble, on a cloudy day; but if this cannot be done, the 
plants must be irrigated at once. Eun the cultivator 
through the patch once a week. A good irrigation every 
two weeks is usually sufficient during the first season, 
and when the runners begin to grow train them so that 
plants will be six inches apart, which gives a narrow 
row. After the desired space is covered keep the run- 
ners cut off. Shading is a great help to newly set plants, 
especially to those set in late summer or early fall, but 
of course this is impracticable in the case of extensive 
planting. Keep the cultivator going and do not allow 
the plants to suffer for water. As the runners begin to 
/row, let the inside shovel on the cultivator draw them 
lengthwise of the rows. As soon as the ground freezes 
in winter, cover the entire patch with coarse straw, or 
liirht barnyard manure, as free from weed seed as may 
'Pli is mulch is to be allowed to remain until the 
plants show signs of blooming in the spring, when it is 



VIXEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS. 219 

to be raked from the rows to the spaces between. Fur- 
rows for watering are then to be opened on one or botli 
sides of each row. 

Irrigating. The preliminary work of the first year 
is all that is required in the way of cultivation, and the 
second year's irrigation need only be sufficient to keep 
the soil in moist tilth until the critical period of fruit- 
age, when a good deal of irrigation is necessary, but the 
soil must not become soaked. The fruiting season may 
be prolonged from four to six weeks by having made a 
good selection of early and late plants. After the fruit 
is set use less water on the early varieties and more on 
the late. It is a good rule to irrigate immediately after 
the bed or a portion thereof has been picked, as the sup- 
plied moisture will be largely instrumental in more per- 
fectly developing the unripened fruit, and bring it to 
more complete fruition. It is a good plan, in the spring, 
to remove the winter mulch from the crowns of the 
plants only, allowing that portion covering the furrows 
to remain. Irrigation waters passing under this mulch 
will have a beneficial effect in fertilizing the soil and 
assisting plant nutrition. After the crop is gathered 
the mulch may be removed. Some growers go so far as 
to run a mowing machine ovep the patch, set as high as 
possible, to cut off the tops of leaves and all the new 
weeds, after which the rubbish is all raked up together 
and drawn off. Then cultivate through the center of the 
paths, apply a coat of well-rotted manure all over the 
ground, harrow and cross-harrow with weights on the 
drag, and then flood the water all over the lot and allow 
it to soak for two days. When again dry cultivate often 
and irrigate enough only to keep the surface moist. This 
is done to encourage the new fibrous roots to grow and 
form new fruit crowns for the succeeding year's crop. 
The old crowns soon die under this treatment. The 
winter care is the same as that of the preceding season. 



220 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Sub-Irrigation. It is about a dozen years since a 
patent was granted for a system of perforated tiles laid 
under the surface for watering land, but it was found 
that the common drain tiles would answer the same pur- 
pose in every respect. There is no doubt that for straw- 
berry culture this mode of irrigation would pay exceed- 
ingly well. Tiles are laid in precisely the same maniur 
as for draining but not so deep and not so far apart. It 
depends on the nature of the soil how much water is to 
be supplied, and much pressure is not necessary. With 
as much as twenty-five pounds to the inch, which is equal 
to a head of fifty-five feet, the probability is that the 
water would be forced above the surface and flow on the 
top. This is not desirable, but only to keep the subsoil 
moist enough to supply the crops in a dry time. Rows 
of tiles twelve feet apart have been found sufficient in a 
light sandy soil, and in a clay it would doubtless be 
necessary to provide drainage for the surplus, or the dis- 
tribution must be very carefully made. A small head, 
three feet for instance, is quite enough to secure the 
even distribution of the water. As in drainage, the water 
supply is carried to the small tiles in larger ones, esti- 
mated as to size by the area to be supplied. In fact, it 
is simply drainage reversed, and thus everything about 
it is reversed precisely; the feeding source being equiva- 
lent to the outlet of the drains and the discharge' corre- 
sponding to the collecting tiles in the drains. 

Irrigating from Water Mains. In describing 
an experiment with irrigation in Eastern Kansas, B. F. 
Smith of Lawrence, says: "I laid iron pipe on top of 
the ground along the roadways through a strawberry 
patch of two and one-fourth acres. Three hundred of the 
five hundred feet of pipe used is common inch iron, and 
two hundred feet is half-inch galvanized iron pipe. At 
intervals of about one hundred feet are water cocks, or 
faucets, for attaching a three-fourths inch rubber hose. 



VIXEYARD AND SMALL FRUITS. 221 

This hose being one hundred feet in length enabled me 
to reach the entire berry patch. Beginning at the first 
faucet I wate rod all within reach of it, then moved the 
hose to the second faucet, and so on, till the whole patch 
was watered. At the commencement of the experiment 
I used a nozzle in the manner that we water our lawns, 
but soon discovered that the better way was to dispense 
with the nozzle, and let the water run out on the rows 
of berries from the end of the open hose. Water was 
applied at the rate of about a gallon to every twenty 
inches in length of row. This amount of water thor- 
oughly soaked the rows, but not the entire space be- 
tween the rows, which is not necessary to the well ripen- 
ing of berries, as the water supply is wanted among the 
roots. Then, to have watered the two-feet space between 
the rows would have taken double the amount of water, 
with no addition of fruit. 

The irrigation was all done at night. The time 
taken to go over the patch was twenty-eight hours, and 
the cost to apply the water was ten cents an hour. I used 
16,000 gallons of water the first application and 10,000 
gallons the second application. There was an interval of 
a week between the waterings. The water company 
charged fifteen cents for 1000 gallons. The piping and 
hose cost $60; water, $5.25; application to the plants, 
$5.60; total, $70.85. I got the water plant ready to 
work May 19. Up to this time I had picked the patch 
over three times, and in my estimate of the crop by those 
pickings I would have got about seventy-five crates off 
the patch, but with the use of water I gathered two hun- 
dred and twenty-five 24-quart crates of berries. In fact, 
one hundred and fifty crates might be placed to the 
credit of my irrigation experiment. One hundred and 
fifty crates at $2.10 a crate, the average of the crop, fig- 
ured up $315. Subtracting the water expense, $70.85, 
we have to the credit of the experiment, $244.15. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 

Alfalfa is the greatest forage plant the world has 
ever known, and should be a special crop with every irri- 
gation farmer. It is known scientifically as Medicago 
saliva, its botanical name. In the Spanish language it is 
alfalfa, while the French, Swiss, German and Canadian 
people call it lucern. It is a leguminous perennial, and 
properly belongs to the pea-vine family. It is often 
miscalled a grass. Its term of existence has not been 
authentically established, but it will last the average age 
of man, and instead of depleting the soil it has a way. 
through its root nodules, of constantly replenishing the 
soil with the nitrogenous fertilizing elements of the 
atmosphere. 

The writer once met a venerable padre of Old Mex- 
ico, who said his alfalfa patch had been planted over 
two hundred years, had never been re-seeded during that 
time, and had yielded four crops of hay regularly every 
year. The history of this most wonderful plant is some- 
what shrouded in mystery, but the Grecian historians 
tell us that it was brought from Media in Asia to Greece 
in Europe during the reign of Darius, about five hundred 
years before Christ. Its culture extended to Rome, thence 
to the South of France, where it has been a favorite for- 
age plant. It grows wild with great luxuriance on the 
pampas of Buenos Ayres. It was brought into Mexico 
by the early Spanish Conquerors, and from thence found 
its way, about the middle of the present century, to the 
Pacific Coast country, now Southern California. 

222 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 

It did not reach Colorado, where its growth ha* 
attained a state of perfection, until 1862, when a small 
quantity of seed was brought from Mexico by Major Jacob 
Downing, who planted it in a dooryard in Denver, an<l 
from whence it spread until, to-day, it covers many thou- 
sands of acres in the Rocky Mountain region, and ex- 




FIG. 63. ALFALFA PLANT IN BLOOM. 

tends out on the great plains as far east as "the Father 
of Waters." A single stool of the plant is honestly por- 
trayed in Figure 63, and the illustration is not 
exaggerated. 

Alfalfa Soils. There is a good deal of misappre- 
hension afloat regarding this or that kind of soil being 



224. IRRIGATION FARMING. 

unsuited to alfalfa culture. As a matter of fact, the 
soil itself cuts but very little figure in the success of the 
crop so long as contaminating influences do not come in 
to lay injury upon it. Any soil will do, so long as it 
has a porous substratum for proper drainage, and so 
that there is no accumulation of surface water to injure 
the crown and root of the plant. Corn land is just the 
thing for alfalfa any soil that is of a friable character 
answers every need of the plant. And carefully seeded, 
protected, and cared for in a common-sense way, failure 
will scarcely result, and winterkilling need not be 
feared, as the plant is much more hardy than red clover. 
Bench land is preferable to bottom land, and sandy loam 
is more desirable than clay, though some clay soils an- 
swer well for alfalfa, but the plants are longer in becom- 
ing established. Alfalfa should not be sown on sod for 
the reason that so valuable and permanent a crop should 
never be laid on a surface rough and difficult of irriga- 
tion. Where there is a loamy soil "old land" is best 
upon which to sow alfalfa, and should be plowed deep, 
and if not to be irrigated, should be subsoiled. 
With sandy land over very porous subsoil, where irriga- 
tion is not practiced, good success often results from 
seeding on sod. On land of this nature thorough sur- 
face preparation without subsoiling will probably give 
the most satisfactory results. 

Preparing the Land. In starting alfalfa'the first 
point claiming consideration is the selection and prepara- 
tion of the soil. The plowing should, if possible, be 
done in the fall, and in the arid regions the use of the 
subsoil plow is almost an imperative necessity. In the 
spring, before seeding, the land should be carefully 
graded to a surface so even as to obviate the necessity 
for the irrigator ever to slep into the growing crop to 
force the water with a shovel. Whoever neglects to do 
this will, when too late, have ahumlunl and untvasin-- 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 225 

cause to repent his foil} 7 . The labor and cost of grading 
land at the outset are infinitesimal compared with the 
ai^ivgati 1 labor and loss incurred in irrigating rough, 
iiiK'ven land t \virc or thrice each season for an indefinite 
term of years. In leveling the land for the economical 
distribution of water by the flooding system, the writer 
has preferred to use the Shuart land grader, and has 
completely leveled ten acres a day with this indispensable 
machine. 

After grading, and immediately before sowing the 
seed, the land should be flooded. A good irrigation at 
this stage serves a three-fold purpose. First, it reveals 
the high spots, if any remain, and these should at once 
be worked down and irrigated. As soon thereafter as 
the ground will bear working, the seed should be sown. 
Secondly, irrigation before seeding insures the prompt 
and complete germination of the seed. This is a point 
of vital importance, for without a dense and uniform 
stand of plants it is not possible to make a high quality 
of alfalfa hay. If the stand is thin on the ground the 
stalks will be coarse, woody and indigestible, and in 
curing, the leaves will dry and fall off before the stems 
are sufficiently cured. But if the stand is thick the 
stems will be fine and the foliage will be so abundant 
that the curing process can be effected evenly and with- 
out perceptible loss of leaves. 

Seeding. Of the different modes of seeding with 
alfalfa, the most common method, when the conditions 
are favorable, is to scatter the seed over a surface which 
has been finely pulverized and not crusted, the sowing 
being done very early in the spring. The crumbling of 
the soil after a night's freezing partly or wholly covers 
the seed, none of which is buried so deep as to prevent 
germination. The seed is protected with an oily cover- 
ing or sac, and is not injured by freezing. With spring 
rains enough to keep the surface moist, nearly all will 
15 



IRRIGATION" FARMING. 

grow. But in most cases all the required conditions for 
success with this mode of seeding cannot be depended 
on. The soil well fitted the previous autumn may have 
become so crusted by an open winter as to prevent the 
seed from becoming covered by the crumbling soil, or 
an early drouth may be fatal to the young alfalfa. 
Farmers who are familiar with the seasons will decide 
whether to adopt this mode of seeding, or to use a later 
mode by harrowing. Covering the seed by harrowing 
prevents a part from growing by burying too deep, but 
the loss of seed in this way is less than many suppose. 
It is true that alfalfa seed will not grow if buried over 
an inch in a heavy soil, or an inch and a half in a 
light one. With a light harrow not more than half the 
seed will be buried too deep, and often not more than a 
third, and if the soil surface has been well pulverized 
all the rest will grow. . The writer has seen old-fashioned 
farmers "brushing in " broadcasted seed, and the plan 
worked all right. In his own experience the writer has 
always used the modern press drill, with the tubes set at 
various distances apart, according to the purposes of the 
crop, whether for pasture, hay, or seed. The variance 
is from four to nineteen inches. The drill should be 
run the same way the land slopes, so that irrigation may 
follow the drill ways, which is a convenient way of ap- 
plying the water on the field. Contact of water in irri- 
gating does iiot injure the plants, if the water is not 
kept on too long at a time and sun scald is guarded 
against. Oats or wheat are often put in as a nurse crop, 
and many contend for this practice, which is condemned 
by others. The oats are mixed with the alfalfa seed 
and all sown together. The roots of the grain hold the 
alfalfa in place during irrigation, and the subsequent 
quirk TO will of the grain serves to shade the tender 
youn<r alfalfa shoots from the blistering effects of the 
noonday sun. In any event ran 1 inu.-t he taken that, 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. ^"i 

the seed is not planted too deep, thus, preventing free 
germination. Hence shallow seeding with the drill is 
advised. 

The amount of seed to be sown to an acre will be 
governed largely by circumstances. Primarily the 
range is from twelve to thirty pounds to the acre. More 
is required in broadcasting than in drilling, and for fine 
hay the stand should be much thicker than when only a 
seed crop is desired. The amount of grain put in when 
sown with alfalfa is but a trifle less than the usual de- 
mand. When seed alone is the desideratum, the drill 
should be employed and the tubes set from fifteen to 
nineteen inches apart, and only twelve to fifteen pounds 
of seed should be placed on an acre. A good " catch" 
is more desirable usually than the actual number of 
pounds to the acre, but a good rule for a common crop 
would be from fifteen to twenty pounds, and one using 
this quantity will not go astray in his expectations. It 
is very difficult to re-seed thin patches, as the older 
growth is so rank that it tends to choke out the younger 
shoots. We have found that wherever implements may 
be used for covering the seed, the work should be fol- 
lowed by a plank drag to smooth and compact the sur- 
face. Great care should be exercised, in the selection of 
seed, to see that the grains are plump and healthy, and 
that it is scrupulously clean. If there are many 
shrunken seeds reject the whole lot, for if they sprout 
at all they will produce only puny, worthless plants. 
By all means avoid seed that may contain the dodder 
seed, as this enemy is very fatal to alfalfa. 

Irrigating. The critical time with alfalfa is the 
first six weeks of its growth. Flooding during this 
period is quite certain to give the plants a backset from 
which they seldom fully recover before the second, and 
sometimes not before the third year, and it is not often 
in the arid States that rain falls with sufficient frequency 



228 IRRIGATION" FARMING. 

to dispense with the necessity for irrigating the plants 
while small. By soaking the earth from thirty-six to 
forty-eight hours before seeding, however, the plants 
will make vigorous growth until they are ten to twelve 
inches high, after which they may be irrigated with 
safety. After the plants are up and show well, the first 
trouble will be the growth of the weeds, which may, if 
left alone, almost entirely smother the alfalfa. As soon 
as the weeds seem to be getting the start of the alfalfa, 
run the mower over the ground, cutting the whole 
growth down and leaving it just where it fell for a 
mulch, and if nothing happens the alfalfa will show up 
first and will make its next growth very quickly, and 
cover the ground to the exclusion of all else. The writer 
has received more complaints from friends and subscrib- 
ers in the East regarding the weed nuisance than from 
all other difficulties combined, and as a general caution 
we would advise the use of the mowing machine with 
the sickle-bar set rather high, whenever the weeds seem 
to be getting the better of the young alfalfa. This will 
improve the alfalfa by making it more stocky, and stool- 
ing out is an advantage at this time. It will also insure 
more certainly against winterkilling, and will be found 
advantageous from every point of view. 

After alfalfa has become established, a single copi- 
ous irrigation after each cutting will ordinarily be found 
sufficient. Irrigation before cutting is undesirable, be- 
cause it leaves the earth so soft as to interfere with the 
movement of machinery and loads. It also makes the 
stalks more sappy, and while they will retain the 1 
better there is more difficulty to be experienced in the 
curing at harvest time; and taken all in all, we much 
prefer to irrigate after each cutting. Here in Colorado 
we cut alfalfa three times and often four times in ;i 
son, hence the stand gets as many irrigations. Some 
people irrigate very early in springtime, before the 



230 IRRIGATION FAR3IIXG. 

crowns have awakened from their hibernal rest, but this 
practice is not right. The chill of the water in very 
early spring is not conducive to quick growth and may 
often retard the plants in getting an early start. We do 
not irrigate prior to the first cutting unless the season is 
particularly dry and the plants seem to actually demand 
the water. AVe irrigate late in the fall and apply a top- 
dressing of light barnyard manure, which is found to be 
of great service in several ways. The flooding of a newly 
cut alfalfa field is shown in Figure 64. 

Harvesting. It must be said of alfalfa that in 
cutting it for hay a good deal of skill should be employed 
by the husbandman, or the results may be disappointing. 
Alfalfa contains six per cent less water than does red clo- 
ver, at the point of blooming, but at the same time it seems 
to require a more thorough curing process to fit it for 
the stack or mow. The knack to be acquired is that of 
curing the hay sufficiently to insure it keeping sweet in 
the stack without becoming so dry as to shed its leaves 
in the handling. This cannot possibly be accomplished 
by curing fully in the swath. A method much practiced is 
to rake the alfalfa, while still quite green, into windrows, 
where it is allowed to cure somewhat more, and finally 
to rake it into moderate-sized cocks, in which it is allowed 
to stand until ready for the stack. This process makes 
very nice hay, but where a large acreage is to be taken 
care of it is too slow and expensive. Alfalfa may be 
cured in the windrow with entire success, but it is im- 
portant when cured in this way that there be ample 
facilities for putting it into stack very rapidly when ready, 
otherwise it will become too dry and much of it will be 
lost in the handling, especially if it has to be carried 
from the fields on wagons. Alfalfa should be cut on the 
first appearance of bloom. The old-fashioned "go-devil" 
is now made in the way of an improved table rake, and 
tlie ricker which supplements it at the stack forms a very 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 

satisfactory arrangement for gathering the hay crop. By 
means of these rakes the hay is taken from the windrow 
by horse power, and conveyed to the stacks in jags 
weighing two hundred to four hundred pounds, where it 
is delivered to the ricker, and by the latter is landed into 
the middle of the stack. The only hand work required 
is the distribution of the hay after it is placed upon the 
stack. Five men and five horses with two rakes and the 
ricker easily put thirty tons of hay a day into stack, at a 
cost of about thirty-five cents a ton. The great draw- 
back to these rakes is that they can be used to advantage 
only on short and level hauls. The process of this method 
may be seen in Figure 65. 

Colonel Lockhart, a leading alfalfa grower of 
Fowler, Colorado, has simplified the gathering of cut 
alfalfa in the field by throwing away wagons, "go-devils" 
and all contrivances except a drag arrangement of his 
own invention. This is composed of nine boards of 
Texas pine an inch thick, six inches wide and sixteen 
feet long. These are placed parallel, leaving six inches 
of space between each, and all are fastened across the 
ends with a 2x4 laid flat and loosely bolted to the boards. 
To this is hitched a team of horses, and on it nearly a ton 
of hay can very easily be hauled to the stack. Tho drag 
is hauled alongside a cock of hay. Two men with pitch- 
forks turn over the hay onto the drag, which when loaded 
is hauled to the stack and dumped onto the sweep which 
carries it to the top of the stack. The drag will run 
over all ditches and obstacles, and is the best thing of 
its kind yet devised. 

To facilitate the work of harvesting alfalfa, it is 
well to have parallel roads thirty rods apart running 
through the fields. These roads may be protected from 
irrigating waters by ditches on either side, so that the 
roadway at no time is flooded. This arrangement allows 
the alfalfa to be stacked at close proximity, and the plan 




ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 233 

will be found very convenient. In stacked alfalfa more 
or less combustion takes place, and it is best to provide 
ventilators, which may be of headless barrels set on end 
in the center of the rick ; or rails and boards may be 
employed, a very good plan being that depicted in 
Figure 66. 

This ventilator is made of two Ix3-inch strips nailed 
three inches apart by crosspieces, so as to form a sort of 
open box. If a board 
roof is not desired, 
the top of the stack 
may be anchored 
with fence wire cut 
in suitable lengths, 
and these burdened < <r i * r ~ <^f 

with weights at each FIG< &* VENTILATOK Foit ALFALFA STACK. 

end, so that they will dangle at the sides of the stack. 
These weights are to prevent the wind from blowing the 
hay to kingdom come and are just the thing for the 
rainless region. Stack covers with brass string-eyelets 
arc also good weather protectors, and will pay in the long 
run. 

The Seed Crop. There is a little knack in tak- 
ing alfalfa seed that all irrigation farmers should under- 
stand. In cutting the seed do not let it stand till dead 
ripe, as one-third will rattle off and waste. Cut when 
the head is handsomely brown and the stalk not quite 
dead. There will then be scarcely any waste and the 
seed will be as plump. Many people in gathering alfalfa 
seed waste at least one-fourth by allowing it to stand too 
long before cutting. Cut with a mower or reaper, a 
mower is preferable. Some attach a drag apron and throw 
off in bunches of medium size and in windrows. Do not 
handle it much after it is put in the windrows, as all this 
tends to rattle the seed out of the legumes, and much of 
it will be lost in this way. Stack in convenient piles, or 



234 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

into one great stack, as may be preferred, after it is dried 
thoroughly, and let it go through the sweat at least three 
weeks before threshing. If placed in large stacks care 
should be taken to put in stack ventilators, so that the 

- will escape without danger of burning, which has 
a tendency to injure the seed. If threshed in an ordi- 
nary machine all the teeth on the cylinders must be used, 
and it often pays to run it through twice. An alfalfa 
huller is very necessary to get the best results, and seventy- 
five bushels is a big day's work. Stock will generally 
eat the haulm or leavings. The first crop is best calcu- 
lated for seed, unless perchance it be too rank, when the 
bolls will turn brown prematurely and the seed itself 
may not be worth saving. Insects may injure the first 
crop, in which event the second will have to be depended 
upon. If hay is hauled from the field on a hay rack 
place a wagon cover at the bottom to catch all the loose and 
falling seed. We usually allow the swaths to remain from 
three to five days before hauling in the hay, but this is 
incident upon the almost constant days of sunshine and 
cloudless skies that we enjoy here in the far West. Seed 
alfalfa must never be raked, and we deprecate even plac- 
ing it in cocks. The less handling the better, in avoid- 
ing waste. An average yield of seed is all the way from 
eight to thirteen bushels to the acre when grown under 
irrigation. In very large areas only half the first crop 
may be reserved for seed, taking the other half from the 
second stand. When alfalfa is grown for seed it needs 
but very little irrigation, probably not more than half 
the amount that is given to the hay crop. 

Fertilizing Elements. Plowing under green 
alfalfa as a manurial agent and soil restorative is becom- 
ing recognized in the West as a very essential agency in 
preventing soil deterioration. It is therefore a very useful 
plant in following out a line of crop roi-.tion. Asa 
green manure or soil renovator, alfalfa is hardly equaled 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 235 

by any other plant. It is very rich in phosphoric acid, 
potash and lime, and gets a goodly portion of nitrogen 
from the air, leaving much of this in the soil by means 
of its large roots. Aside from this, when used as a green 
manure there is a great deal of humus added to the soil, 
both by the matter turned under and by the roots. The 
large, long roots open the subsoil to a great depth, serv- 
ing much the same purpose as the subsoil plow. The 
writer once saw an alfalfa root at Las Vegas, New Mexico, 
that measured thirty-two feet in length and had been se- 
cured by some laborers while digging a well in an old 
alfalfa patch. When once well rooted a stand of alfalfa 
seems as impregnable as the gates of Hercules, but a stout 
and sharp sward plow and four draft horses will turn 
down the growth at the rate of two or three acres a day 
if properly handled. 

The extraordinary demand made upon available 
plant food in the soil by a crop of alfalfa is something 
not fully comprehended by all growers of the great 
legume. These demands are especially noticeable in the 
case of nitrogen and potash, crops often collecting over 
one-quarter of a ton of each from an acre in a season. 
It is universally admitted that the mineral constituents 
of plants, such as phosphoric acid, potash, lime, etc., 
are derived solely and entirely from the soil. In the 
case of nitrogen, certain leguminous plants, such as 
alfalfa, clover and peas, have the power of assimilating 
large amounts from the atmosphere when sufficient phos- 
phoric acid, potash, and lime are present in the soil. 
Therefore, while it is quite possible that alfalfa, being a 
deep-rooting plant, could secure nitrogen from the soil, 
the probability that it also secures a large quantity from 
the air enhances its value as an agricultural plant, firstly, 
because nitrogen is the basis of the compound protein, 
the most valuable part of the food product ; and secondly, 
because nitrogen is the most costly element in all ferti- 



236 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

lizing compounds. "NVlion alfalfa is grown and its prod- 
ucts are properly utilized upon the farm, it cannot be 
considered an exhaustive crop, but rather as one fulfilling 
the proper aim of rational agriculture, which is to trans- 
form into produce the raw materials at our disposal in 
the atmosphere and soil. It has been estimated that the 
market value of an acre of turned-under green alfalfa is 
all the way from fifty dollars to eighty dollars, and the 
experiments along this line have been very carefully 
made by scientific gentlemen. 

Feeding Value. Alfalfa hay is forty-five per cent 
better than clover, and sixty per cent better than tim- 
othy. To secure a good milk ration by the use of tim- 
othy hay, protein must be supplied from some other 
source, in order to secure a ration that will give a suffi- 
cient amount of that material without entailing a loss of 
carbohydrates" and fat ; clover hay, however, is a fairly 
good ration in itself, and can be economically used with- 
out the addition of any other compounds ; alfalfa hay, 
on the other hand, requires the addition of large amounts 
of both fat and carbohydrates in order to be profitably 
utilized as a milk ration. This fact renders alfalfa more 
serviceable than its valuation would indicate, since, in 
the management of farms either for dairy purposes or 
for grain farming, an excess of carboh yd rates is secim-t"!. 
which in the great majority of cases is wasted. Under 
ordinary conditions two and a half pounds of protein, 
four-tenths of a pound of fat, and twelve and a half 
pounds of carbohydrates can be profitably fed daily to a 
cow of one thousand pounds live weight. One ton of 
alfalfa hay, containing 35.3 pounds of digestible fat, 
280.1 pounds of digestible protein, and 770.7 pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates would furnish sufficient protein 
for one hundred and twelve days, fat for eighty-eiiiht 
days, and carbohydrates for sixty-one. Therefore, in 
order to feed this amount of alfalfa economically and 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 237 

profitably, fat sufficient for twenty -four days and carbo- 
hydrates for fifty-one days must be added from soi in- 
other source, such as cornstalks, green fodder corn, or 
ensilage, wheat straw, oat straw, root crops, etc. Two 
tons of a mixture of equal weights of field corn- 
stalks and alfalfa would furnish food sufficient for one 
hundred and thirty-six days, without noticeable loss of 
any of the digestible compounds. Four tons of a mix- 
ture composed of one ton of alfalfa hay and three tons 
of corn ensilage, or green fodder corn, would furnish 
food sufficient for one hundred and thirty-six days with- 
out any appreciable loss. Alfalfa, therefore, furnishes 
a feeding material rich in protein, which can be substi- 
tuted for such waste products as wheat bran, cotton- 
seed meal, etc., usually bought in order to profitably 
utilize the excess of carbohydrates. 

There is no way in which more net profit may be 
secured from an acre of good alfalfa than by pasturing 
young hogs upon it. One acre should sustain ten to fif- 
teen hogs from spring to fall. If they weigh a hundred 
pounds each when put on the alfalfa, they should make 
another hundred pounds. One thousand pounds at five 
cents is fifty dollars, and there is no expense to be de- 
ducted. Six hundred pounds of pork from an acre of 
corn would be a good yield, and then the expense of cul- 
tivating and harvesting and feeding would make a big 
hole in the net profit. Pork making from alfalfa is one 
good road to success. Alfalfa hay is used largeh 7 in fat- 
tening sheep and lambs which get no other ration. 
Fowls eat it greedijy, and it can be relied upon the same 
as green food, by steaming the hay. Horses can live on 
alfalfa the year around. 

Diseases and Enemies. Some of the alfalfa 
fields of a humid climate are affected with root rot, 
which causes the alfalfa to die in almost perfect circles 
during June. Cool weather checks the dying until the 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 

next June, when a. ring of alfalfa dies on the margin of 
the circle. Its annual spreading indicates a fungous 
trouble. The disease spreads slowly, about fifty feet 
each year, and its advance is not stopped by plowing 
around the diseased spots. Hence the fungus mu>t 
attack the healthy plants for some time before there are 
any visible signs of disease. The disease attacks the 
crown and upper portion of the root, no fungus being 
found below sixteen inches from the surface. The fun- 
gus is identical with the cotton-root rot. Salt, kerosene, 
and other remedies have been found to be partially ef- 
fective, but no sure cure or preventive has yet been 
found. 

In other humid climates some farmers have found 
that the plant is affected with leaf spot. This disease is 
found in nearly every place where alfalfa is grown, in the 
moist Atlantic States. Usually it does not attack the 
plant until the second year's growth, when the plant is 
able to survive the disease. Sometimes, however, it 
completely destroys seedling plants. The disease shows 
itself as minute dark-brown spots of irregular shape 
upon the green or discolored leaflet. The center of each 
spot forms a pustule. In this are developed the spores, 
which are set free by the breaking of the epidermis. 
The disease readily survives the winter, and may develop 
year after year in the same field. In serious ca>es cov- 
ering with straw and burning will stop the disease. It 
may be held in check by frequent cuttings. 

Dodder is an enemy that has given alfalfa more or 
less trouble "out West." It is a small annual parasitic 
plant with yellow or reddish-yellow twining stems, which 
wind themselves around the stems of alfalfa, clover. "i % 
similar plants near the ground, taking its nourishment 
from its host. It has small, colorless, scale-like leaves, 
and produces clusters of ten or more flown-s. each of 
which contains four small grayish seeds which are about 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 



half the size of the alfalfa seed. These fall to the 
ground, where they remain until the next season, when 
they germinate. The young dodder plant cannot live 
long in the ground, and unless it finds a host plant, 
soon dies. Where it is abundant the plants upon which, 
it feeds assume an unhealthy appearance, and finally die. 
Dodder can be killed by cutting the hay before the dodder 
blossoms, or by burning it, or by plowing the crop under 
and cultivating the land for a year or two in corn, potatoes, 
or other plants which have stems so large that dodder does 
not live upon 
them. The plant 
itself is an annual, 
and if is is not 
allowed to go to 
seed it will die of 
its own accord. 
To keep it from 
seeding, then, is 
important, and 
this can be done FTG- 67- DODI)ER SKED, FLOWER AXD PLANT. 
by running the mowing machine when the alfalfa is half 
grown, and allowing the hay to wilt on the ground, or 
it may be raked off, as desired. 

The workings of this pestiferous parasite are illus- 
trated in Figure 67, reproduced from the American 
Agriculturist. From the seed (e) a vine grows and 
clings to the alfalfa stem (b) by the sucking root (c), 
through which the dodder thereafter feeds upon the 
alfalfa sap, the ground roots dying and the vine turning 
yellow. The slightly purplish flowers (d) are borne in 
clusters (d). The small dodder seed (e) can be removed 
by a sieve with twenty meshes to the inch. The vine 
can be killed by a copperas or sulphate of iron solution. 

Another enemy is the alfalfa worm, which acts 
much like the army worm in destroying leaf, stem and 




240 



IRRIGATION 



branch. The midge also bin-rows into the seed bolls 
and works great havoc, and a clover-blossom worm finds 
its way into alfalfa and works some injury. Flooding 
an affected field with water will usually do away with 
the worms. 

Hoove or Bloat. The only objection which has 
been raised against alfalfa as a forage plant is its ten- 
dency to cause bloat in ruminating animals. In its com- 
ponent parts there is nothing in alfalfa which would 
necessarily create hoove, and the only way by which it 
occurs is when the animal eats too greedily and over- 
gorges itself by taking in 
greater quantities than it can 
digest, when gas accumu- 
lates and tympany of the 
first stomach is the inevi- 
table result. It is held that 
alfalfa grown- without irriga- 



FIG. G8. 




i;.sKD 



tion will not cause bloat. 
Neither will esparcet, which 
is a plant similar to alfalfa. 
A number of preventives 
have been introduced to al- 
leviate the sufferings of an 
animal with the hoove, but 
e trocar is the surest alter- 
native and is usually applied as a last resort. Figure 68 
shows how the instrument may be used. 

The veterinarians have a rule for. inserting the tro- 
car. They span with outstretched thumb and middle 
finger for a point at right angles with the chine and hip 
joint on the left side, plunging the trocar in a downward 
and inward direction fully six inches, when it should 
tup the stomach and allow the gas to escape. By plant- 
ing the trocar at a point equidistant from the hip bone, 
the last rib and the lateral process, many a valuable ani- 



ALL ABOUT ALFALFA. 241 

mal has been saved when other expedients have failed. 
The hollow pro bang passed into the stomach might give 
relief, so might a drench of a tablespoonful of hyposul- 
phite of soda, or a rowel in the mouth ; but when these 
fail resort to the trocar and cannula, and the suffering 
ruminant is saved. 



16 



CHAPTER XVII. 

WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 

Devices almost innumerable are being tested and 
employed for placing water on land, where canals cannot 
be utilized, or are inadequate. Wind and water power 
are of course the cheapest forces for this purpose, where 
they can be relied upon. Hence the marked improve- 
ment in windmills and water wheels. 

Presuming that all the low lands along the valleys 
can be irrigated by the use of canals, the question of 
upland irrigation becomes one of great importance. 
Admitting that the water supply is sufficient for the 
apparatus in use, we will suppose that a farmer desires 
to irrigate five acres of land, with a possibility of ten, 
from a one hundred foot well. To assure success for the 
larger amount of land not less than a fourteen -foot wind- 
mill should be purchased. A sixteen-foot would be bet- 
ter. With either of these sizes, and a storage reservoir, 
it will not be best to guarantee that over eight acres can 
be irrigated, although there can be no doubt that with the 
proper use of the water, keeping the mills constantly in 
use, wetting down the land and completely saturating 
the soil to the depth of six feet or more, and carefully 
utilizing all sources of supply, ten acres can be irri- 
gated from this depth by mills of either of these sizes ; 
but only by the best of management, favorable condi- 
tions and great care in the handling and distribution 
of the water, will a fourteen-foot mill irrigate the last 
amount given. In any event a storage reservoir at the 
well is quite essential, and by its presence it is safe to 

242 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 



243 



say that all the way from fifteen to forty acres may be 
irrigated, by employing various mills that may raise water 
at any distance from ten to one hundred feet. 

It is best, in arranging to put in a windmill plant, to 
place it on the highest advantageous point on the farm, 
for the two-fold purpose of commanding every passing 
breeze and of carrying the water that has been raised to 




FIG. 69. AN IDEAL WINDMILL AND RESERVOIR PLANT. 

its final destination by the gravity process. There are 
so many methods of raising water by pumps that the 
writer despairs of fully covering all of them, and must 
only be expected to touch upon a few of the most prac- 
tical ones now in use. An ideal reservoir and win'.!- 




; 



'. 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 245 

engine pumping plant is shown in Figure 69, and a 
windmill plant in operation in Figure 70. 

Buying a Windmill. In selecting a windmill 
the first point to look at is the age and standing of the 
firm making the article. There is no class of machinery 
that should be investigated with more care than a wind- 
mill. Examine the machine offered and see that it is 
well built. See that the iron work is heavy and substan- 
tial, the wheel well braced, the journals well babbitted, 
the fans securely fastened to the arms, and that the vane 
or tail is supported by means of a truss brace. In fact, 
see that it is not a sham, made to sell and not to work. 
It must be safe to stand through the heaviest storm. 
Its strength and apparent construction for durability 
should be the standard of its worth. The lowest ma- 
chine in price is not often the cheapest machine to buy. 

A first-class windmill should, with a fair amount of 
care, do good service for twenty to twenty-five years with 
a very small amount of expense for repairs. Some of 
the oldest manufacturers can refer to their work that 
has been in constant service for a longer time than that 
mentioned. Remember that the tower, pump, tank, etc., 
that go to make up a complete outfit, all cost as much for 
a poor, unreliable mill as for a good one. A modern idea 
is to have an all-steel plant, and this is quite an item 
for the consideration of those living in the arid regions, 
where the climate is exceedingly severe on all woodwork. 
Be sure to get a mill strong enough to do the heaviest 
work in a light wind, and do not expect a ten-foot wheel 
to do the work of a fourteen-foot wheel. 

Erecting Windmills. One thing of importance 
in this connection is to elevate the tower sufficiently high 
to place the lower curve of the wheel at least ten feet 
above all obstructions, such as trees, buildings, hills, etc., 
that the mill may have a free current of air from all 
directions. Mistakes are often made in placing mills too 



240 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

low, so that the wheel is below the ridge of barns or tops 
of trees near by. This not only prevents the mill from 
receiving full force of the wind, but subjects it to vary- 
ing currents that tend to toss the mill about from one 
point to another and prevent it from doing the work 
properly and in strong winds the effect is sometimes 
damaging. It is better economy to erect a mill too high 
than too low, as frequently the upper current of air is 
moving sufficiently to run a mill while it would not run 
in the lower current. Again, the upper current is more 
steady at all times, and will run a mill at more uniform 
speed, with less strain, and with greater satisfaction to 
all concerned a little extra material for the tower in the 
start should not be taken into consideration if it is to 
effect the workings and safety of the mill for years to 
come. The most important point of a windmill tower 
is the anchorage. Probably the best way is to dig holes 
four feet deep and fill them with stone laid in water 
lime or cement ; in this is embedded, to serve as an 
anchorage, a two-inch bar of iron with one end flattened 
and holes punched in for the tower bolts. If it is not 
convenient, posts may be used with pieces spiked across 
the bottom for anchors ; this is the method generally 
employed. Wooden towers should be well painted every 
five years. It is not well to enclose a tower with siding. 
It offers a greater grasp for the wind and adds but little 
strength. It is well, however, to enclose the lower sec- 
tions to form a pump house. This adds greatly to the 
strength and appearance. 

Such is the popularity of the steel wheel that where- 
ever it has been introduced it has driven the wooden 
wheel out of the field. The modern steel tower stands 
straight, stiff and supreme. It is twice as strong, weighs 
only one-third as much, and presents less than one-sixth 
the surface of a wooden tower to the sweep of a storm. 
It will not decay, and when galvanized is proof against 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 247 

rust. Nothing short of a tornado or cyclone can blow it 
over. The steel wheel is in keeping with its tower. The 
fans being made of steel and bent into curved shapes, 
produce more power by far than a straight wooden slat. 
This being the case, smaller wheels may be used than 
if made of wood, for the same amount of work. The 
wheel being geared so as to require three revolutions to 
make one stroke of the pump also increases the power. 
Back gearing enables the wheel to run at a natural and 
a more rapid rate of speed. 

It is well known that more power can be derived 
from a fast running wheel of any description than 
from a slow one. Economy in buying is extravagance 
in using. In raising a tower it is best to employ some- 
one who has had experience in. that line. Have four 
hundred or five hundred feet of rope, double tackle 
blocks, besides poles for shores to raise it high enough 
for the blocks to take hold, and guy ropes to steady it 
until fastened to posts. Have the posts set, and if on a 
steel outfit be sure that they are perfectly level or the 
mill will not be plumb. Steel towers must be raised 
with the main castings attached, and the wheel and vane 
put on afterward, although they may be put on before 
raising if there is sufficient help. In wooden towers the 
frames should be raised alone and the castings hoisted 
into place by means of a gin pole and ropes. Also be 
sure that the tower is level before fastening to posts. 
Care must be taken in setting the posts, that they are 
exactly the right distance apart. Where tanks are de- 
sired, it is best to buy them from regular dealers who 
also furnish instructions for putting them up. 

Care of Windmills. A windmill in daily use 
should be oiled at least every two weeks. This, in icy 
weather, is no desirable task. Several methods have 
been introduced to overcome this difficulty. Large stor- 
age cups are used by some. One or two firms use what 



248 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

is called a tilting tower. This tower supports a mast 
pivoted in the center. On one end of this mast is placed 
the wheel, while the other end is weighted to the weight 
of the wheel. When oiling is needed the foot of the 
mast is unlocked and the wheel drawn to the ground. 
The latest plan introduced to overcome the necessity of 
oiling is to have all bearing parts made of graphite, 
which is a composition of brass and black lead, the latter 
in itself a great lubricator. The makers of these bear- 
ings claim that they will last from twenty to twenty-five 
years. All bolt work on a frame and about the gearing 
should be carefully watched, and where joints become 
loosened they should be tightened promptly, as in this 
way serious loss may often be averted. 

Power of Wind Engines. The velocity of the 
wind and the diameter of the wheel determines the 
power. An eight mile velocity of wind an hour gives a 
force equal to one-third pound to a square foot, and a 
fifteen mile wind gives a force of one pound to a square 
foot; a twenty mile wind gives a force of two pounds to 
a square foot, and a twenty-five mile wind gives three 
pounds, while a thirty mile wind gives a force of about 
four and one-half pounds to a square foot of wheel sur- 
face. Thus it will be seen that the force of the wind 
increases or decreases in the ratios of the squares of the 
velocities. A fifteen mile wind gives a force a little more 
than three times as great as an eight mile wind, and just 
twice as great as a ten mile wind, while a twenty mile 
wind is nearly twice as great as a fifteen mile wind. The 
mean average velocity of the wind throughout the United 
States is a little less than eight miles an hour. In cer- 
tain sections, as along the sea coast and throughout the 
plains and table-lands, the velocity is much greater, 
while in other sections it is less than the general aver- 
age. It is, as a rule, safe to figure on eight to ten hours' 
work out of the twenty-four for the windmill, when the 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 249 

wind velocity will be eight to fifteen miles an hour. At 
certain seasons, and again in some localities, the velocity 
will equal fifteen to twenty miles an hour for eight to 
twelve hours or more out of the twenty-four. 

Pumping windmills of the solid wheel type are 
usually adjusted by regulating their governor, so as to 
govern when the velocity of the wind reaches fifteen 
miles an hour. This is to avoid injury to the pump by 
preventing too rapid action of the pump valves. Back- 
geared mills are an exception to this rule, being geared 
back for the purpose of reducing the number of strokes 
of the pump in proportion to the revolutions of the 
wheel, so as to utilize the greater force of the wind 
obtained by higher velocity than fifteen miles, and are 
adjusted to govern at a considerable higher velocity than 
ungeared mills. 

Twenty-seven thousand one hundred and fifty-four 
gallons of water will cover one acre one inch in depth. 
One horse power, with good machinery, will raise this 
amount of water one foot high in ten minutes ; or ten 
horse power will raise it in one minute. One horse 
power would put one inch of water on one acre, elevated 
twenty-five feet above the source, in four and one-sixth 
hours. Ten horse power would do the same for ten 
acres. Now from this we get the rule that, for one inch 
of water on one acre of land, we must figure one horse 
power for ten minutes for each foot in hight the water 
must be raised. It may be more explicit to add that one 
horse power is defined as the combined pulling strength 
of four ordinary horses. In theory a horse power is 
equal to 33,000 pounds lifted one foot high in one min- 
ute of time. 

The Wind Rustler. A queer and simple con- 
trivance this, and quite common in Western Kansas. 
One of these odd arrangements to attract the curiosity 
of the modern Don Quixotes of the plains is but poorly 



250 



IBBIG AT10K FA KM 1 S G . 



illustrated in Figure 71. In this machine the fans are 
eight feet long and three feet wide, with their broad- 
sides placed so as to catch the prevailing north and 
south winds. The box is a trifle over eight feet square, 
with the axle of the wheel resting on the top and sides. 
The lumber had to be hauled fifty miles, and yet the 
whole plant cost the maker but fifty dollars. The water 
was raised forty-five feet and irrigated five acres. Such 
a mill may give good service where only a small quantity 
of water is required, or where the mill is not surrounded 




FIG. 71. WIND RUSTLER. 

nor likely to be by trees or other obstructions which 
shut off the winds ; but for irrigating considerable tracts, 
or if trees or buildings are near by north or south, re- 
sults will scarcely be satisfactory. 

Another plan for a wind rustler is used in Nebraska. 
Four tall posts are set in the ground at proper distances 
apart. A wooden windlass rerolves in boxings attached 
to the top of each pair of posts. The fans are made of 
boards set into auger holes in the middle of the wind- 



WIXDMILLS AND PUMPS. 251 

lass. A small iron crank at one end of the windlass 
operates the pump. 

Pumps. There are four distinct types of pumps, 
the pluiiLivr or piston pump, which includes the wind- 
mill, steam and many devices of power pumps; the 
vacuum, the rotary, and the centrifugal, besides elevators 
which raise water by means of flights attached to an'end- 
less chain. The plunger pump of necessity moves the 
water more slowly, as it only travels at the speed of the 
piston. The plunger pump also is designed especially 
for handling clear water grit, sand and foreign mate- 
rial cut the pistons and barrel of the pump. While 
these pumps will move the water slowly, they will move 
it a long distance, or against heavy pressure when properly 
designed. The pumps of next greatest capacity are the 
rotary pumps. Of these there are many designs. They 
handle water much faster than do plunger pumps, but 
as it is essential that the working parts of these pumps 
should fit closely, there is necessarily great friction and 
corresponding loss of efficiency, and hence they are short- 
lived, especially when pumping water that is muddy or 
gritty. The pumps of greatest utility for low lifts are 
the centrifugal pumps. These are built with no close- 
fitting parts and no valves ; consequently there is no 
friction on the parts of the machinery, and they are 
not affected by sand, mud or gritty water. Hence, for 
irrigation, where the lift does not exceed fifty feet, cen- 
trifugal pumps are recognized by all hydraulic engineers 
as the most efficient and durable, the cheapest and best. 
The vacuum pump is an entirely different principle, hav- 
ing no movable parts, except a small automatic shifting 
bar in the yoke, to operate the valves. These pumps are 
made with a pair of cylinders working alternately as the 
atmospheric pressure is removed from them, thus allow- 
ing the water to rtish in and discharge itself. They are 
useful only for small lifts, and theoretically are not calcu- 



252 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



lated to raise water more than twenty feet. Some are 
submerged, while others are placed on the surface over 
the well. 

Various Pumps. One of the best piston pumps 
for windmills is the Gause, which is very effective when 
operated in connection with the point system, as shown in 





FIG. 73. IRRIGATION rv.Vl- CYLINDER 



KI<;. 72. GAUSE rr.Mr 

AND POINTS. 

Figure 72. This pump is largely used in Western Kan- 
sas. In many of the piston pumps for wind power it is 
advisable to use an irrigation cylinder in the well. The 
Buckeye is porcelain-lined, and it is said to be very effi- 
cient. The simplicity of this barrel is to be seen by 
a glance at Figure 73. Another piston pump is the 



\\INDM1LLS AND PUMPS. 253 

Frizell, and there are many more of equal merit and 
efficiency. One of the best pumps is the Allweiler 
known to the trade as the Berlin and for very deep wells 
and the wind engine it is to be commended. It is an 
oscillating force pump and is illustrated in Figure 74. 
These pumps will draw water from 
twenty to twenty-eight feet, and will 
force it up one hundred to three hun- 
dred feet, according to the size of the 
pumps. These pumps are worked by 
a lever which may be placed in either 
a vertical or horizontal position by 
hand as well as steam or windmill 
power. They were awarded the high- 
est diploma and medal at the Colum- 
bian Exposition. One of these pumps 
was put in as a public experiment at 
Goodland, Kansas, and raised a four- 
inch stream one hundred and eighty 
feet, furnishing enough water to irri- 
gate fifteen acres. The whole plant 
cost three hundred and eighty dollars, 
including forty dollars for the res- 
ervoir. FTG. 74. BEfcLIN OSCIL- 

In rotary pumps there are several LATINO PUMP. 
good styles. The Wonder pump is quite popular when 
worked with a gasoline engine and belt power. It is 
very simple in construction and operation, having no 
valves. It does well with tubular wells and will readily 
lift three hundred gallons a minute. 

The Lambing pump, made in Denver, is rapidly com- 
ing to the front. It is a rotary force pump and has a 
capacity of from two hundred to six thousand gallons a 
minute, according to the size. The writer has seen the 
smallest Lambing run by a water wheel raising two 
hundred and fifty gallons a minute forty feet above the 




254 



IRKIQATIOK FAKMIXG. 



stream. The water wheel was supplied from a power 
ditch and the pump took up the water that was dis- 
charged from the wheel. A water motor or a turbine 
would have answered in the same way. 

Vacuum Pumps. These clever contrivances are 
used quite extensively in the West and in the rice fields 
of the South. There are two kinds shown in Figures 75 
and 7G. The one shown in Figure 75 is the Huffer 

patent and is calcu- 
lated to lift water 
twenty feet or less 
and discharge it at the 
pump on the surface 
of the ground. The 
other is the Rogers 
patent and is made 
for deep wells, not to 
exceed one hundred 
feet, however. It has 
a standpipe for taking 
the water at the 
pump, which is set in 
the well just above 
the water line, and 
carrying to the sur- 

!!;. 75. THE LOW-LIFT VACUUM PUMP. filCC, where it IS dis- 

charged. The mechanism is simple, consisting of two 
vertical cylinders attached to a single suction pipe below 
and connected above by a sliding steam valve contrived. 
for automatic movement, allowing steam to enter the 
cylinders alternately, where it is condensed, creating a 
vacuum into which the water rises by the pressure of 
the atmosphere, escaping from one cylinder while the 
other is filling, thus giving a continuous flow vary in. ir 
from fifty to three thousand gallons a minute, or a three 
hundred and thirty inch stream under a four-inch head 




WINDMILLS AXD PUMPS. 



550 




for the largest sized pump. Other forms of vacuum 
pumps are the Pulsometer, Nye and Swan, the latter, 
however, working by steam and 
hot air combined, requiring high 
pressure boilers and an air con- 
denser, and making in all a 
rather expensive plant. We are 
not exactly satisfied thus far 
with the operation of these vac- 
uum pumps, and would rather 
place dependence upon the du- 
plex compound pumps with con- 
densers. In these pumps the 
steam works expansively, first 
in the high pressure cylinders, 
and then, by exhaust, into the FIG. 76. HIGH-LIFT VACUUM 
opposite low pressure cylinders, PUMP. 

the high and low pressure cylinders being tandem on the 
cylinder, and the condensers returning hot water to the 
boiler and saving valuable fuel. 

Centrifugals. These pumps are worked by sta- 
tionary engines and are quite generally used by sewer 

contractors. They are 
good for low lifts, and 
will throw sand and 
gravel readily. On a 
twenty-foot lift a No. 
If Van Wie pump will 
irrigate ten acres of 
land and require a two 
horse-power engine. A 

u * No. 2 pump will sup- 

FIG. 77. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. p]y twenty acres re- 
quiring three horse power. No. 3 pump, forty acres, 
with six horse-power engine. No. 4 pump, eighty 
acres, with ten horse-power engine. No. 6 pump, 160 




256 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



acres, with twenty horse-power engine. No. 8 pump, 320 
acres, with forty horse-power engine. The writer once 
saw an ordinary ten horse-power threshing engine drive 
a Xo. 8 pump, raising water enough 4500 gallons a 
minute to irrigate 320 acres of land easily. The ex- 
terior view of a centrifugal pump is shown in Figure 77. 
Hydraulic Rams. These machines have been 
very much improved of late years, and are now quite ex- 
tensively depended upon for domestic and irrigating 




FIG. 78. HYDRAULIC RAM IN PARTS. 

water supply in the West and South. The principle on 
which the hydraulic ram works is simple and easily un- 
derstood. A hydraulic ram consists of three parts two 
valves and an air chamber. In Figure 78 will be seen 
the working parts of a ram exposed to view. J is the 
air chamber; P, delivery pipe; N, overflow; A, drive 
pipe connection ; B, base ; J/, spring supply pipe ; 0, 
check valve. 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 257 

The chamber is bolted onto a frame which forms, 
at one end, an entrance into the ram for the supply of 
water, and connected at the other end with the outside, 
or impetus valve. This frame also contains, placed at 
right angles with the supply passage, outlets for the 
water discharged to the reservoir. There is an opening 
just above the supply-water passage into the air chamber 
through its valve. The outside or impetus valve is so 
arranged by bending upward the end of the supply pas- 
sage that when it is closed by being forced or held up 
against its seat no water can escape; and when it falls 
clown of its own weight or is held down, the water can 
flow freely from the ram. This is all there is to a hy- 
draulic ram, and as there are but two valves to wear it 
will last a lifetime. 

The operation, in forcing the water, is as simple as 
the means. The water is brought to the ram through a 
supply pipe laid on an incline. Through this the water 
flows downward and out at the impetus valve until it 
has acquired power, by its velocity, to throw the valve 
up and close it. The momentum, or force of this fall- 
ing stream of water continues, and it finds an outlet 
through the valve in the air chamber, which opens. 
The water continues to pour into the air chamber until 
the pressure of the air is equal to that of the head of 
water. This closes the air chamber valve and confines 
the water which has been let in. At the same time the 
impetus valve opens of its own weight, as the pressure 
of the water in the supply pipe has been overcome by 
the pressure of the air in the air chamber, and the water 
commences to waste as before. While the water is wast- 
ing at the impetus valve, the expansion of the air in the 
air chamber forces the water out through the discharge 
pipe. This operation will continue as long as the work- 
ing parts keep in good condition and the water supply 
lasts. 

17 



258 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



The supply must be from four to twelve feet higher 
than the location of the ram, and from twelve to one 
hundred and fifty feet distant from it. In locating a 
ram, not only the fall and distance must be taken into 
consideration, but some means of draining the waste 
water from the ram must be provided. If the ram must 
be located in a pit to get the desired fall, a drain must 
be provided, starting from the bottom of the pit. If it 
is not practicable to locate the ram the desired distance 
from the supply, a number of coils may be made in the 
pipe. In this manner a ram may be located directly un- 



IP* 




FIG. 79. HYDKAUL1C ENGINE IN OPKKATloX. 

der the supply, and will work equally well. The supply 
must determine the size of the pipe to be used. Never 
use a ram that is too large for the supply. If the supply 
pipe is not kept full the ram will not work to advantage, 
and will eventually stop and give trouble. Figure 70 
illustrates a ram operating under very favorable 
circumstances. 

The water can be discharged to an elevation several 
times the fall of the water from the reservoir to the rani, 
the greatest fall causing the discharge of the greatest 
amount of water at a given hight, or a given amount of 
water to a greater hight. Or, in other words, about 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 259 

one-seventh of tho water f ami shed to the ram may bo 
raised to a hight of four times the hight of the supply, 
one-fourteenth to eight times the hight of the supply, 
one twenty-eighth to sixteen times the hight of the 
supply, and so on. The manufacturer of Rife's ram gives 
the following rule for ascertaining how many gallons 
my be delivered in an hour. Multiply the number of 
gallons the ram will receive through the supply pipe a 
minute, by the feet in fall. Multiply the product by 
forty, then divide by the number of feet the water is to 
be elevated above the ram. The result will be the num- 
ber of gallons delivered in an hour. 

Water Motors. In large streams of steady cur- 
rent, the Harvey water motor, an outline of which is 




FIG. 80. HARVEY WATER MOTOR. 

given iii Figure 80, is considered quite a success in lifting 
water for irrigation. By the use of wing dams in the 
stream the force of the current operates directly upon 
the wheel at the lower point of the dams, and in this 
way power is created for running a centrifugal pump. 
The wheel is a combination of an undershot and breast 
wheel hung on a swinging frame, and is balanced by a 
counterweight. Its gearing is a sprocket wheel, so that 
it can be raised or lowered with the varying rise or fall 
of the river without any readjustment of gearing. Mr. 
F. H. Harvey's wheel at Douglas, Wyoming, is ten feet 
in diameter, fourteen feet long, and secures sixty horse 
power, operating a 3 1-2 inch pump, which delivers one 



260 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 



hundred gallons of water a minute to a hight of sixteen 
feet. The same power .is sufficient to operate a five-inch 
pump, which would raise seven thousand gallons a 
minute. The cost of the wheel compared with what it 
accomplishes is but a trifle. Labor and material, in- 
cluding the pump on the Harvey plant, amounted to 
81,200. As much of the work was experimental, it was 
necessarily slow. A like plant can be put in for $800, 
and most of the work can be done by the farmer. The 
daily expense of operation is merely nominal, and it 
requires no attendance except to oil the machinery 
occasionally. 

The Hurdy-Gurdy. This is a late improvement 
which is best illustrated in Figure 81, which shows the 
runner only and does not include 
the gearing. This wheel is of the 
impulse and reaction class especially 
adapted to high heads and mountain 
streams. This cascade wheel has 
been placed under heads as high as 
seven hundred feet, and is capable 
of utilizing head pressures as high 
as 2,000 to 2,500 feet. The water 
is admitted to the wheel by means of 
nozzles projecting one or more jets, 
which strike the circular ridge divid- 
ing the water into equal portions, 
passing into the buckets ; the buckets 
alternating to the jet, the arrange- 
ment giving ninety per cent of effi- 
ciency. The gearing of this wheel 
is easily applied to rotary or centrif- 
ugal pumps, and water is raised in 
this way. The turbine class of water 
wheels operates upon a different principle. Turbines 
are submerged entirely under the water, which gives 




no. 81. 

111! HUllDY-GUliDY. 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 26 

them their power upon a different place, they receiv- 
ing this power from the pressure and reaction of the 
water. A more primitive affair having the same object 
in view is the common water wheel often seen in the West. 
Every one knows of the stern-wheel steamboats that 
navigate shallow streams. These afford an instance of 
the kind of wheel to be used, simply a large one with 
paddles or floats on the end of the arms, by which the 
current of the stream turns the wheel; and by means of 
proper gearing the motion is conveyed to a pump, by 
which the water of the stream may be raised through 
pipes to any reasonable hight and distance. A stream 
nine feet deep and one hundred feet wide flowing four 
miles an hour will exert a very great power. A common 
float or paddle wheel twenty feet in diameter working in 
a stream of this kind will make four revolutions in a 
minute, which by cheap gearing may operate a pump 
with sixty strokes a minute, this being more than 
ample to raise water sixty feet in sufficient quantity to 
irrigate twenty to forty acres of land. The cost of such 
a wheel would be quite small, not over $50. The wheel 
should be submerged over eighteen inches in the water, 
which will be the width of the floats. If more power is 
desired, the floats may be increased in width. It will be 
the square feet of area of each float submerged at one 
time that will be the measure of the power in a uniform 
current. 

The current or bucket wheel is quite an institution 
in many large streams, and it is a good thing where the 
current is steady and strong. By attaching buckets to 
its arms or sweeps, sufficient water can be raised to irri- 
gate small tracts close to the stream. The turning of 
the wheel by the current at the same time fills the 
buckets, which are emptied at a certain hight into a 
trough or flume, and in this way the water is carried to 
the land. 



262 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Gasoline Engines. Very effective pump power 
can be gained by the use of the portable gasoline engine, 
which consists of base, cylinder, piston, connecting rod, 
crank shaft and fly wheels. The modus operandi and 
the development of power is as follows : In starting up, 
on the first outstroke of the piston a mixture of air im- 
pregnated with the proper amount of gasoline is drawn 
into the cylinder, passing through the valve chambers. 
On the in stroke of the piston, this mixture in the cylin- 
der is compressed into space between the cylinder head 
and the piston. The combustible mixture is then 
ignited by f the most reliable, safe and simple device 
possible, a short iron tube closed at the outer end and 
connected to the interior of the cylinder, enclosed in a 
chimney and heated by a burner, and the air being 
expanded by the heat involved, an impulse is given to 
the piston. When the piston has reached the second 
outstroke the exhaust valve is opened and remains open 
during the second instroke of the piston, and the prod- 
ucts of combustion are expelled through the exhaust 
pipe, which is conducted to the outer air. 

It has been found that the cost of a twenty horse- 
power gasoline engine is about $1,450, and a thirty horse- 
power about $2,000. The cost of running the first will 
be about forty cents an hour, and the second sixty cents. 
The amount of water raised will depend upon the lift, 
the kind of pump used, and the general arrangement of 
the plant. Assuming a lift of ten feet, a twenty horse- 
power engine should lift about five hundred inches, and 
a thirty horse-power about seven hundred and fifty 
inches. For engines to raise one or two inches continu- 
ous flow the expense would be somewhat greater in pro- 
portion. The cost of operating these engines in local- 
ities where seventy-four degree gasoline can be obtained 
in quantities at ten cents a gallon, is ono cent for each 
exerted horse power per minute. 



WINDMILLS AND IT. MI'S. 



203 



Compressed Air. Modern science is actively at 
work endeavoring to employ air in raising water from 
wells, and two or three feasible plans have already been 
devised. One is the Chapman process, illustrated in 
Figure 82, which shows the ap- 
paratus as devised for a well. By 
means of the proper machinery 
the injected air causes the well to 
flow. Air is forced down the 
small pipe, comes up in a cone 
shape, filling the well pipe and 
carrying the water with its force. 
It also lightens the water column 
and causes the water to flow 
through the pipe in torrents. It 
is suitable to be used in wells of 
any depth, and any number of 
wells at any distance apart can 
be operated from one engine. It 
is claimed that by this system 
more water can be raised than by 
any other, but to the writer's 
mind this claim is not wholly 
clear. Another scheme is Mer- 
rill's pneumatic system,, by which 
water may be elevated from as 
many sources as may be desired. 
Figure 83 represents two sources, 
with wind and gasoline engine 
power arranged to use separately, 
or in combination. The plan is FI( >- 82. AT* COMPRESSOR. 
said to be entirely practicable. In the cut, A is the 
compressor ; B, the air pipe leading to the well ; (7, the 
injector in the bottom of the well ; /), a similar arrange- 
ment in the other well ; E is the discharge pipe, and F 
is the bank or reservoir. The same power can be util- 




IRRIGATION FARMING. 



ized, by gearing and belts, in doing a great amount of 
work, such as churning, grinding, etc. One man can 
attend to the whole outfit, and if the water-lifting 




FIG. 83. THE PNEUMATIC SYSTEM. 

arrangement is not as yet wholly complete, Yankee 
ingenuity will soon make it so, as the principle is all 
right. 

Repairs of Windmills. At least once a year a 
windmill pumping plant should be overhauled and put 
in repair. First the pump should be repacked, if the 
valves leak. The check valve must be absolutely water- 
tight. Not a particle of water must run through when 
the valve is shut. If it does the pump pipe will become 
empty and the water will not start for a time, nor will it 
start at all without priming if the check valve is above the 
water level in the well. The piston valve must be renewed 
when worn, otherwise but part of the water is raised 
with the stroke, and when the wind is light tlu wind- 
mill will run without raising :ny water; this would bo 
dangerous, for at a certain speed the mill will pump just 
fast enough to freeze water in tlu- pump, wht-n an iiu-r. 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 265 

wind will smash things. Put both valves in perfect 
order. As for the windmill, if a solid wheel, sec that 
t ho brake is adjusted so that it will hold the wheel mo- 
tionless when out of wind. If the brake has too light 
pressure, a change of wind, if the wind is light, will 
turn the wheel slowly without acting on the vane, and it 
will pump slowly and freeze the water. The main things 
are tight valves, so that water will be pumped when the 
windmill turns, no matter how slowly ; a small vent to 
let the water back after pumping ceases small enough 
so it will not allow water to run out fast enough, when 
pumping slowly, to cut off the flow from the spout and 
a tight brake to bold the wheel perfectly motionless 
when turned out of wind. If wooden tanks leak from 
shrinkage the evil can soon be remedied by throwing in 
a quart or so of bran, which will soon fill the crevices 
and stop leakage. 

Cost of Lifting Water. The cost of furnishing 
the power by means of steam varies according to the 
amount to be furnished and the cost of fuel. It requires 
the same labor to attend a five horse-power boiler and 
engine as it would require for a fifty horse-power outfit. 
It will probably average twenty-five to thirty-five cents 
for each horse power for the operation. of any plant of 
ten to twenty-five horse-power capacity. Say it costs 
thirty cents ; then the cost of putting one inch of water 
on twenty-four acres a day would be three dollars for a 
twenty-five foot elevation, or twelve and one-half cents 
an acre. Or, in other words, a two-inch flow on each 
acre could be obtained for twenty-five cents if produced 
by steam. A centrifugal pump, driven by a gasoline 
engine, would accomplish the same result at an expendi- 
ture not to exceed eight or nine cents. This engine 
needs no attention. It uses but one gallon of gasoline 
for each horse power in a day of ten hours. Wind 
engine power costs so little that the total annual expense 



266 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

of operation is merely nominal. A good windmill plant 
with a reservoir large enough to irrigate ten or fifteen 
acres need not cost to exceed three hundred dollars 
originally, and such an installation would last for years. 

Capacity of Pumps. The quantity of water a 
windmill will lift into a reservoir during an average of 
eight hours' run a day depends entirely on conditions. 
If a mill of a given capacity has to lift the water from a 
considerable depth, it cannot raise as much as if the 
water is lifted only a few feet. For this reason, in the 
latter case a larger sized pump may be operated by the 
same force exerted on a smaller size, when the water is 
taken from a considerable depth. 

Theoretically, one horse power will raise a five-inch 
column of water one hundred feet, a six-inch column 
seventy feet, and an eight-inch column forty feet ; addi- 
tional horse power will elevate the water in direct pro- 
portion. A ten-foot mill will develop one-half of one 
horse power ; a twelve-foot mill three-fourths horse 
power ; a fourteen-foot mill one horse power, and each 
additional two feet in diameter of wheel develops practi- 
cally one additional hor*se power up to a thirty-foot mill, 
which develops eight horse power. The cost of the mill 
ranges from forty dollars for the smallest size, up to 
four hundred dollars for the largest. 

A five-inch pump geared to run forty-eight eight- 
inch strokes a minute will discharge 1860 gallons of 
water an hour; a six-inch pump geared in the same wav 
will discharge 2760 gallons an hour, and an eight-inch 
pump will discharge 4860 gallons an hour. A reservoir 
one hundred feet square by four feet will contain 40,000 
cubic feet, or about 300,000 gallons of water. A five- 
inch pump discharging 1860 gallons an hour will in one- 
third of a day, or eight hours, discharge 14,880 gallons. 
In twenty days of eight hours each this is assuming 
that the windmill runs one-third of the time 297,600 



WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. 267 

gallons of water will be secured, practically filling the 
300,000 gallon reservoir. Daring the six months from 
April to September inclusive, there are nine periods of 
t \\vnty days each. Therefore, the reservoir can be 
emptied and re-filled nine times during the six months, 
resulting in an aggregate of 2,700,000 gallons of water 
for irrigation purposes, equal to 360,000 cubic feet. 
This is sufficient water supply to irrigate ten or eleven 
acres of ordinary soil nine times during the season, 
which would be the maximum number of wettings. A 
steam-pumping plant with a fifty horse-power engine 
will raise 7,500,000 gallons of water to a bight of ten 
feet every ten hours. This amount of water will cover 
twenty-three acres to the depth of a foot in the period 
mentioned. The cost of the plant will approximate 
$3000. It will require one man to operate it, and about 
one ton of coal daily to keep it in operation. In many 
places wood is so abundant and cheap that coal is not 
needed to be used, while in numerous localities straw or 
cobs may be burned, thereby reducing the cost of fuel 
to a minimum. A four-inch centrifugal pump, with a 
gasoline engine of two and one-half net horse power, will 
raise 9000 gallons of water an hour twenty-five feet ver- 
tically, and it can be operated twenty-four hours a day, 
or less, as desired. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

DEVICES, APPLIANCES AND CONTRIVANCES. 

There are innumerable devices in use in irrigating 
operations, some of which may be of homemade con- 
struction, and these the author will describe but briefly, 
after having given the details for a city sewerage system 
as applied to irrigation operations near several Western 
cities. We include this reference to sewage in this 
chapter not because it properly belongs herein, but from 
the fact that space forbids a separate chapter devoted to 
it and there is no other place in which it might properly 
appear. 

In irrigation work the operator -needs first of all 
tilings a pair of heavy rubber boots and a long-handled 
round-pointed shovel. These might well constitute his 
entire working outfit, and with a simple knowledge of 
irrigation, as we have endeavored to present in the pre- 
ceding pages, he is ready to do a day's work in any field 
requiring the magic touch of the vivifying waters. 

A Sewage System. The rich fertilizing elements 
of the city sewers may often be carried out upon garden 
tracts, and there applied to the best possible advantage. 
The writer will describe the system in vogue at Trinidad, 
Colorado, which may answer for all. This sewer is con- 
st ructed of eighteen-inch vitrified pipe laid to a grade of 
two-tenths of a foot in one hundred feet to the mile, the 
sewer having a velocity of 2.58 feet a second of time 
when running full. The sewer, unfortunately, had to 
cross the Las Animas river, which was accomplished by 
the means of an inverted siphon made of sixteen-inch 



DEVICES AND APPLIANCES. 

cast-iron pipe having a masonry catch basim at cither 
end, as shown in Fimnv 84. The siphon carries a cur- 
rent having a velocity of 4.G8 feet a second when run- 
ning full, a rather high velocity being necessary to keep 
it from choking. A masonry chamber is built at tin- 
mouth of the outlet, from which the sewer is conducted 
to various reservoirs. There are automatic ilushers at 
the head of each lateral, so that the sewage is well di- 
luted by the time it reaches the final outlet, very little 
solid matter remaining. The sewage might just as well 
be delivered into open ditches from the siphon catch- 
ment, and these could serve as head ditches at the land 




FKJ. 84. INVERTED SKWKK SYSTEM. 

to be irrigated, provided, of course, the grade would be 
sufficient. In winter the surplus sewage might be con- 
ducted to various reservoirs, where it could be stored or 
allowed to seep away as desired. 

Artesian Well Machinery. The success of arte- 
sian wells in some sections is phenomenal, and they prove 
a valuable acquisition in irrigation advancement where 
artesian basins exist not too far from the surface. A very 
good well, suitable for irrigation purposes, is to be seen in 
Figure 85. 

The cost of an artesian well not over five hundred 
feet deep ought not to exceed one dollar a foot including 
casing, and contractors will do the work for this sum. 
The cost of sinking generally increases more rapidly than 
the depth, so that except in cases of easy boring or great 
supplies of water, it will not pay to attempt deep wells 
for irrigation purposes. The temperature increases with 
the depth, which is an advantage if the water is to be 
immediately applied, but the water is also more mineral- 



270 



IRRIGATION FABMINO. 



ized, which is a disadvantage, or not, according to the 
character of the solids present. 

There are three systems of well boring employed in 
artesian work. For shallow wells the spring pole is the 
cheapest means as well as the slowest, and is often re- 
sorted to by a farmer desiring to dig his own well at small 
expense. A more pretentious outSt is such a one as is 
shown in Figure 86. In this machine the band wheel 




FIG. 85. ARTESIAN WELL. 

is turned by a belt from the engine. When drilling 
elliptic gears revolve, which raise and lower the drill as 
the hole is deepened. A hand wheel having a worm is 
turned to unwind a rope on the drum that lowers the 
drill. The elliptic gears are engaged to the machinery 
by a friction clutch, which can be engaged or disengaged 




FIG. 8ti. ARTESIAN DRILLING OUTFIT. 



27:2 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

while the machinery is running, or the tube is being ro- 
tated. A pump is operated by steam, which forces water 
down the tubing to wash out the cuttings. Expansion 
drills are without doubt the best thing that can possibly 
be used for sinking wells, as they cut a large hole below 
the casing so that the casing can be inserted more easily 
than can be done by any other means. 

The most substantial outfit, and one that must be 
used in very deep borings, is the old-fashioned Pennsyl- 
vania oil derrick. This rig is of a more permanent char- 
acter than the portable machine, and in setting it up the 
posts must be well anchored. A walking beam is neces- 
sary and this is operated by crank power. A bull wheel 
must be set in position to raise and lower the tools, a 
sand pump is necessary, and the drilling is done by a man 
who attends to the temper screw which rotates the drill 
bit, and prevents it from striking twice in exactly the 
same place. 

The Uphill Siphon. Sometimes farmers own- 
ing water in reservoirs are desirous of using the water in 
places which would necessitate what would be called 
"draining uphill." Provided the land to be irrigated 
lies lower than the surface of the water in the reservoir, 
this can be performed without any great effort by using 
the principle of the siphon. A tile layer once agreed to 
drain a pond which at that time wits full of water, by lay- 
ing the tile drain from the pond over the hill, no atten- 
tion being given to the grade of the drain, nor to the 
fact that the hill was three feet higher than the water in 
the pond. He laid his line of tile about three feet (Ice]) 
through the hill, or about on a level with the water in the 
pond, covering the tile thoroughly as he went along until 
he arrived at the pond. To the surprise of many, the 
water, which was two feet deep in the pond, all ran out. 
Another similar proceeding is related of a drain made by 
a mole ditcher, which is forced through the soil by a 



DEVICES AND APPLIANCES. 273 

capstan. The plow or mole was sefc in at the pond and 
run over the hill, the water following In-hind. Stran^v 
as it may seem all of the water was taken out of the 
pond. The drains were practically siphons, and when 
completed were full of water, so that they acted as 
siphons as long as the water supply lasted. When omv 
empty their action ceased and could not be brought about 
again unless the drains were filled with water, which of 
course could not be done. These examples and others 
which have come under our notice, show that under cer- 
tain conditions tile drains can be made to operate very 
much as tight pipes. We observe, however, that for all- 
round drainage purposes tiles must operate freely, with- 
out being forced, except for flushing in flood times, when 
we may expect to see tile lines crowded beyond their 
capacity for good drainage purposes. 

The Siphon Elevator. This contrivance is com- 
posed of two pipes of unequal diameter, a receiver and a 
regulator. In the interior of the receiver a clack valve 
is placed, so as to cut off, intermittingly, the flow of 
water into the regulator, and above it is a puppet valve 
maintained in its place by a spiral spring. A lever car- 
rying a counterweight is attached rigidly to the axis of 
the clack valve, causing it to open. The regulator is 
formed of a cast-iron drum, having thin corrugated 
heads. At the bottom of the suction pipe is a check 
valve, which allows the ingress of the water but prevents 
the escape. At or near the bottom of the discharge pipe 
is a stopcock. The siphon elevator is filled with water 
the first time through the orifice, which is then closed by 
a screw cap. 

Its operation is as follows : By opening the stopcock 
in the pipe, the water in the siphon is submitted to at- 
mospheric pressure, with which it seeks equilibrium. 
Therefore, as it falls in one pipe it ascends in the other 
pipe and penetrates into the receiver, where, meeting the 
18 



274 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

open check valve, it forces the same forward and closes it. 
Its exit being thus cut off, the water by its momentum 
raises the puppet valve and escapes through the opening, 
whence it runs off in a reservoir or other receptacle. 
During the time the regulator partially empties into the 
pipe, causing a partial vacuum and a depression of the 
corrugated heads ; but the pressure upon the clack valve 
meanwhile diminishes, allowing it to be thrown open by 
the weight on the level, so that the water immediately 
fills the regulator again. The corrugated heads assume 
their original positions and the same phenomena take 
place again in a very brief period of time, varying from 
four hundred to four hundred and fifty a minute. The 
vibrations insure the continuity of the movement, caus- 
ing an uninterrupted flow of water from the reservoir 
over the puppet valve. This elevator will lift water 
eighteen feet in high altitudes and thirty feet at sea 
level, the difference being in the natural atmospheric 
pressure. The elevator costs a few hundred dollars and 
may be used in streams, wells, or reservoirs. 

The Bucket Elevator. This arrangement is cal- 
culated to raise water from a stream by the force of the 
current, but the writer does not accord to it all the great 
things claimed by the inventor, Ira J. Paddock, of Hem- 
ingford, Nebraska. The device is crudely sketched in 
Figure 87. According to this plan, two upright posts 
are to be driven a few rods apart on the farther bank of 
the stream, and two or more on the nearer side, at least 
one being far enough up the slope to be beyond the res- 
ervoir. To the tops of the posts are fastened, by short 
ropes, pulley blocks, through which is rove a taut endless 
rope belt. This should be two feet above the ground, 
and should run quite a distance lengthwise over the 
stream ; the latter adjustment being effected by giving 
enough length to the fastenings of the pulleys to the 
two posts on the farther bank. 



DEVICES AND APPLIANCES. 



275 



The pulleys are so designed that drag cords knotted 
to and hanging from the moving belt rope will pass 
them without any trouble. Then to the rope are fas- 
tened a lot of boxes, or buckets, which perform double 
duty in carrying water and generating power. They 
would be full going uphill, their weight being then sus- 
tained by two wheels running on the ground, and the 
belt rope merely hauling them. A bit of plank above 
the reservoir would come in contact with a valve in the 
bottom of each box as it arrives, thus discharging the 
contents, so that a procession of empty boxes would be 
going down the slope. These would nearly overcome 
the weight of the 
boxes, but not the 
water going up. Of 
course, there is some 
loss through friction. 
Mr. Paddock aims to 
get enough power 
for hauling, from 
the pull of the 
stream upon those 
boxes which are float- 
ing in the water ; and if the length of the stream section 
of the belt rope is great enough in proportion to the 
climb up the hill, the plan ought to work. He would 
thus have an automatic machine, working something 
like a grain elevator. 

W. W. Allen of Centerville, South Dakota, has 
rigged up a contrivance for elevating water from a river 
to irrigate his fields. He has had a lot of galvanized 
iron buckets made, holding about five gallons each, 
which are attached to a large belt running over pulleys, 
it being operated by a small horse power. He has 
ditches running from the river so that he can run the 
water very readily over his entire field. 




FIG. 87. BUCKET ELEVATOR. 



276 IBKIGATIOX FARMING. 

The Canvas Dam. Of the homemade devices 
for saving labor to the irrigation farmer, the canvas 
apron, which is capitally illustrated in Figure 88, is one 
worthy of special attention. The advantages of using 
canvas instead of earth for lateral dams are that it saves 
time and labor and affords complete security against the 
breaking away of the water during the absence of the 
irrigator. It also obviates the necessity for mutilating 
the sides of the laterals for earth with which to build 
the dams, which is a point of importance to farmers 
who take pride in keeping their ditches in good condi- 
tion. The materials for a common apron, such as is 
shown in Figure 88, aside from the canvas, are a piece 

, Q of scantling seven feet 

long, two laths, a bit 
of sheet iron, a piece 
of rope and a few 
short nails. The can- 
vas should be twelve- 
ounce, and for fifty- 
inch ditches and up- 



\J 



FIG. ss. THE APRON DAM. wards should be sixty 

inches in width, so as to afford ample protection for the 
sides of the ditch. Nail the scantling to the canvas 
through the lath, and to the bottom of the apron fasten 
in the same way a piece 1x3, fifteen inches in length. 
Put a rope handle in the scantling, and a strong wire 
staple in the piece fastened to the bottom of the apron. 
AVhen set, one end of the brace engages this staple ami 
the other end the rope handle. For laterals of ordinary 
depth the apron should be three feet long, to allow the 
canvas to lie on the bottom of the ditch for a few inches 
behind the staple; otherwise the water will cut under 
and escape. Make the brace similar to the one shown 
in the sketch, and cut to suitable length to allow the 
canvas to lie on the bottom of the ditch. 



DEVICES AND APPLIANCES. 277 

The Tri-Lateral Canvas Dam. It will be seen 
that the essential feature of this dam will admit of 
varied construction in its attachments. A cheap and 
simple method of construction would be to nail one of 
the three borders to a pole, and make a loop by means 
of a stout cord, in the opposite corner. A better con- 
struction, however, is recommended. Select a stout stick 
of hard wood, or good pine 2x4 and six feet long, bore 
a one-half inch hole through the center of the larger 
diameter about one foot from the two ends, and make a 
wide saw cut between and connecting the two holes. 
The cut may be started with a keyhole saw. Make the 
sides of equal length, 
about four feet and 
four inches. Hem 
the edges so as to ad- 
mit the passage of a 
half-inch rope around 
the entire border 
between the two lay- 
ers of cloth. To fas- 
ten the cloth to the 
stick, pass one edge 
of the canvas through 
the saw kerf to the opposite edge, then thread the rope 
through the half-inch holes in the stick and around 
through the border of the canvas, remembering to pass the 
rope through a two-inch iron ring at the angle opposite 
the stick, for a fastener or anchor in the ditch. The 
two ends of the rope should be made to meet about half- 
way along the edge of the stick. Bolt or nail through 
the flat side of the stick to prevent the sides from spread- 
ing and the canvas from slipping in the kerf. The other 
two edges should be fastened firmly to the rope by sew- 
ing a stout cord around the rope and canvas. To make 
the whole thing complete, a half-inch rod of iron about 




278 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

three feet long and sharpened at one end is provided, to 
pass through the iron ring at the point of the canvas. 
The device is shown in Figure 89. In use, the ends of 
the stick rest upon the banks of the lateral, the iron rod 
through the ring with the top slanting in the direction 
of the water source and the sharpened end thrust to a 
good depth in the earth at the bottom of the ditch. 

The author has used (many years ago, however) a 
metallic dam consisting of a sheet of galvanized iron 
about thirty inches long and fifteen inches wide and having 
two rounded corners. There was an aperture four by 
ten inches square in the center, for the water to flow 
through. When the gate was in position the flow of 
water through the aperture was regulated by a sliding 
adjustable gate, made also of galvanized iron, easily 
moved up or down by hand. The dam was set in 
position across a lateral by crowding its sharp edges 
down into the soil to the proper depth, thus forming a 
check to the flow of the water in the lateral except as it 
passed through the sliding gate. 

A Water Gate. Of all the flood gates, patented 
or otherwise, there is but one that is worth building. 
This gate is called the Carlisle gate, as a man by that 
name invented it. Suppose a canal is sixteen feet wide ; 
drive three good six-inch posts into the bottom of the 
stream one on each side, and one in the middle ; make 
a water gate just as if intended to swing it to a pole the 
old-fashioned way. Then fasten the gate to the stakes 
at the bottom with strap hinges, or if cheapness is an 
item, with wires, then prop it up so that it will stand 
erect against the common stream, but so that high water 
will wash it down where it will lie, letting the drift go 
over, but will not carry the gate away. The stakes or 
posts at the bottom should be driven clear down to the 
bottom of the stream, or the water will make a whirl 
around them and finally dig them up. If the stream is 



l>i: VICES AND APPLIANCES. 



279 



large two or more gates can be put in, in the same way. 
After the storm is over and the water recedes, the gate is 
raised. 

The Transplanting Machine. This is a sort of 
an irrigation system on wheels, and while it was origi- 
nally invented for planting tobacco, it serves as well for 
sweet potatoes, tomatoes and cabbage. The machine is 
not unlike a mower in general appearance and costs $70. 
It is drawn by two horses. The field is previously pre- 
pared by a double cultivator, which turns the earth into 
ridges of two feet level surface and nearly four feet 
apart. The planter ft then driven in the furrows be- 
tween the ridges. Two boys are seated on the rear of 
the machine, -under a shady canopy, each with a pile of 




FIG. 90. WATER GATE, 
STANDING POSITION. 



FIG. 91. WATER GATE, 
WHILE WATER IS HIGH. 



plants at his side. As the machine is driven along a 
sort of a small plow called a marker opens a space in the 
ridge into which the boys place the plants, alternating 
with each other, but so rapid is the movement that each 
l)oy is kept busy placing plants in the ground. As the 
plant is thus placed, a stream of water is let out of the 
barrel carried under the seat of the driver, which mois- 
tens the plant. The roots of the plant are then covered 
with soil by two small shares which follow and close the 
earth over the ridge, as when the cultivator left it. The 
valve letting out the jet of water from the barrel is 
operated by a cam connected with one of the wheels. 
The plants are placed twenty-three inches apart, and the 



280 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

distance between the rows is three feet nine inches. 
One of the advantages of this machine is that the roots 
of the plants are not doubled up as in the stuffing hand 
process, but the chief advantage is the saving of labor. 
One machine operated by a driver and two skillful 
boys can do the work of twelve men. The machine will 
plant ten acres in a day and a half. 

Watering Cart. Where a small area of valuable 
crops is to be covered only occasionally in a season, very 
satisfactory results may be obtained with a watering 
cart. The author has a friend in Colorado who used one 
and was much pleased with it. He had an orchard of 
over one hundred acres, for which he made an unsuccess- 
ful attempt to get water for less than $2.50 an acre. He 
then put in a gasoline engine, pumping 15,000 gallons 
in two hours against a sixty-foot head. He irrigated his 
trees with the cart, having to convey the water as far as 
half a mile. He employed five men, gave each tree 
fifteen gallons of water, and did the entire job at a cost 
of 897 for labor, gasoline oil, and all incidentals. He 
kept a strict account of the expenses for his own satis- 
faction, and states that the cost of gasoline for the job 
was $3.80. He simply hauled the water in the cart to a 
tree where a border had previously been dug, and turned 
in enough water from the tank cart to fill the border. 

Liquid Manuring. The utilization of liquid 
manure on all farms is an important consideration. On 
rolling land such as found on many farms it is entirely 
feasible to build a cistern or reservoir in a sidehill, as 
shown in Figure 92, to which the liquid may be conveyed 
by pipes or troughs from the barn, and from which it 
may be let into a water-tight vehicle through a rude 
flood gate or large pipe faucet by gravity, the wagon 
standing below the level of the reservoir. Nor will this 
method be made less valuable by clogging in passing the 
fluid from the cistern to the wagon, because the need- of 



DEVICES AND APPLIANCES. 



pumps and power is dispensed wi th. Attached to the cart 
should be a liquid spreader such as adopted on most city 
street-sprinkling wagons. It is merely a semi-circular 
trough at the end of a pipe, through which the wak-r 
Hows. On being freed from the pipe the water is forced 
downward, then it is spread in a thin sheet regularly 
over an even area. Straw, saw- 
dust and other refuse passes 
through. . Such a cart is useful 
also in watering crops in dry 
weather. Filled with water it 
may be left in the center of the 
lawn or garden, and the whirl- 
lawn sprinkler and hose at- 
tached to it play all 
night over the 
grass, strawberries, 
etc. The advan- 
tages it presents 
are numerous. It 
may be only partly 
filled with the liquid fertilizer where the stuff is too 
strong, and its contents diluted with water before dis- 
tribution. This plan is often advantageous where the 
liquid is hauled up a steep hill. We can see where this 
cistern could be made to discharge its contents into a 
lateral of running irrigation water, and the manure car- 
ried direct to the land in this way. Some such scheme 
will have to be devised. 




FIG. 92. CISTERN AND LIQUID 
MANURE SPREADER. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

SUB-IRRIGATION AXD SUBSOILIXG. 

Sub-irrigation is more of a theory than a condition, 
and until it is better comprehended and more thoroughly 
tested, the writer does not care to uphold it as a system 
worthy of general adoption. There is no doubt that 
sub-irrigation has many advantages, especially in the way 
of economizing water, but the original cost of an under- 
ground pipe system is so expensive that many men are 
deterred from adopting it. A rough estimate would 
make a gallon of water sufficient to irrigate a cubic foot 
of ground, and this is a much higher duty of water than 
can be obtained by the open trench system. 

This method is probably correct inprmciple, and 
there are authorities who claim that it is most economic, 
effective and wholesome. The prime aim, under any 
system of cultivation, or irrigation, should be to stimulate 
and induce capillary action in every possible way. It is 
a fact, conceded by every observing cultivator of the soil, 
that the finest and best crops and the most satisfactory 
results in every way are obtained from those lands where 
there is free, constant and uniform moisture diffused 
from below. Soils differ with respect to the workings of 
capillary attraction, but it is more or less potent in all 
lands. The diffusion of moisture in this way will de- 
pend mainly upon two conditions the supply received 
or contained in the underlying strata, and the character of 
the soil operated upon. Two other points closely allied 
to these are the storage capacity underneath, and the 
manner of cultivation. 

282 



SUB-IRRIGATION AND SUBSOILING. 283 

The difference between wau-r applied to the surface 
by irrigation and that applied below the surface eighteen 
inches to two feet, is that in the former case there is much 
evaporation after the water is applied, and the air has not 
free access to the soil and roots of the plants for a day or 
two. In the latter the subsoil is saturated thoroughly, 
the plant is never deprived of air and the surface soil is 
kept loose and fine, and there is comparatively small 
waste, as the water rises slowly when the cultivated soil is 
reached ; the temperature of the soil is thus more uniform, 
and the growth of the plant is not varied by changes in 
supply of moisture, air, and temperature. It has been 
found by experiment that sub-irrigated soil is warmer 
than that which has been surface-irrigated, and that the 
atmosphere around plants to the hight of twelve inches 
is warmer by sub-irrigation than by surface irrigation. 
Instead of dilating at length upon the pro and con ad- 
vantages of sub-irrigation, the writer prefers to give a 
description of the various methods of applying water in 
this way, and allow the reader to form his own con- 
clusions as to the utility of the system considered as 
a whole. 

Subbing. This is the most natural method of sub- 
irrigation and it is practiced without resorting to pipes 
or artificial water ways. It is simply seepage and is pos- 
sible only on sloping land having a clay subsoil within a 
foot or two of the surface, and is quite commonly seen in 
the San Luis valley of Colorado. Wherever irrigation 
is necessary for the production of a crop, it will be 
found of great advantage at the time of seeding to make 
ditches and furrows at short intervals, and then to so 
check the water in these ditches that it may stand in 
small bodies at a level above the general surface of the 
ground to be irrigated. If the water is held constantly 
in these small reservoirs during the growing season, it 
will not be necessary to flood the ground so often ; and 



^84 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

if the soil is sufficiently porous, it may be possible to 
give the crop all the moisture needed without surface 
application. 

If a field has a steep sidehill slope, it is best to bring 
the water upon it by a supply ditch on the highest part, 
as shown at a in Figure 93, and conduct it by a series of 
dams or drops, b b b, to the lowest part of the field. 
Then run laterals, c c, from above each drop nearly 
along a contour or equal level line of the field, diking 
these laterals up to keep the water above accidental high 
places. These laterals should be permanent and should 



. 



FIG. 93. DIAGKAM OF SUIMKKHJATKI) FIELD. 

be near together at the top of the field, the intervals 
widening as they near the lower edge, as the seepage 
from the upper laterals will necessarily make tbe ground 
more and more moist toward the lower edge of the field. 
The field should be made as long as possible and the 
laterals should be made as near parallel as the ground 
will permit, so as to obtain as large and regular an area 
between the furrows as possible. Whenever it is neces- 
sary to flood growing crops, an opening can be made in 
these permanent ditches at points where the grade line 
intersects a slight knoll. From these openings the water 



SUB-IRRIGATION AND SUBSOILING. 285 

should be conducted in zigzag courses, in furrows pre- 
pared at the time of seeding, thus preventing washing, 
and keeping the water as much as possible away from 
the crowns of plants until it soaks into the soil. A head- 
gate, d d, should be placed at the source of each of these 
field laterals, and then it is possible for the farmer to so 
regulate the supply in each part of the field that a suffi- 
cient quantity may be obtained at the roots of every 
plant, with very little or no water going to waste at the 
ends of the field laterals. 

The Asbestine System. If the water supply be 
limited, or difficult to obtain, this plan stands well at the 
head. It consists of cement pipes, generally three inches 
in diameter, but varying from two to four inches, that 
are made in a continuous line in the bottom of trenches 
with small openings at intervals, in which wooden plugs 
or nipples with quarter-inch holes are inserted. A mod- 
ified form for use in orchards, where the tree roots would 
be likely to trouble by clogging the holes, has square 
openings about six by three inches, over which a piece of 
tile of a size that will fit evenly down over the opening 
is laid. These tiles are laid from fifteen to twenty inches 
below the surface, and although they will work if given 
considerable fall, they distribute the water in a more sat- 
isfactory manner if they have at best but a slight and 
even slope. In the orchards they are laid between alter- 
nate rows, and the holes are from fifteen to thirty feet 
apart. The machine used in laying this system is illus- 
trated in Figure 24, Chapter VIII. 

Another form of tile consists of short lengths of 
cement pipe made in sheet-iron molds, which have 
their joints closed with cement when they are laid. 
These distributing pipes are often connected into sys- 
tems of considerable size by being joined at one end to 
a main supply pipe, which is generally of sheet iron 
coated with asbestos. Sometimes what is known as 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 

laminated pipe, which consists of two thicknesses, is 
used. This may be made of two pipes of such a size 
that when placed one within the other there will be a 
space of one-sixteenth of an inch between them, which 
space is filled with asbestos, while the inner and outer 
surfaces are coated with the same material; or it may be 
made from one piece of sheet iron rolled so that it will 
form a double thickness of iron. The elbows and T's 
are of iron laid in cement. When used for irrigating small 
fruits and vegetables, the laterals are placed twelve to. 
twenty feet apart and the holes are at intervals of from 
six to eight feet. 

Tiling. Scientists who have given thought to the 
subject are agreed that, theoretically, sub-irrigation by 
porous tiles is the ideal plan. The tiles may be made 
porous by mixing sawdust with the mortar, which being 
burned out in the baking process leaves the tiles porous 
to the exact degree desired and prepared for in the mix- 
ing. The first cost of laying a system of pipes has been 
estimated at $400 an acre. The tiling has the advantage 
of furnishing drainage when there is too much water in 
the soil. The ground is first graded and leveled, and a 
ditch is dug with plows and spades every rod or so, one 
foot wide and two feet deep. In the bottom of this 
ditch a row of four-inch drain tile is laid. A line is 
used to keep the tile straight and true. They are placed 
in the ditch as if they were intended for draining the 
land. 

Six inches fall for every hundred feet is necessary. 
The dirt is placed around the tiles by hand, until they 
are sufficiently firm so as not to be displaced by filling 
in with plow and shovel. If the soil is of a sandy nature, 
it is necessary to have a piece of tin or galvanized iron 
over the joints, to prevent the sand from filling in. The 
tile is placed at least eighteen inches below the surface, 
and is out of reach of the plow. The water is brought 



SUB-IRRIGATION AND SUBSOILIXG. 

to the land by means of a pipe which is laid directly 
across the tile at the highest point, and a faucet is 
arranged so that water may be turned into each line of 
tile at the same time. The tile may be stopped at the 
lower end, thus allowing the water to seep out of the 
joints until the land is sufficiently moist. Many persons 
would suppose that the water would descend, but it nat- 
urally rises to the surface. It is essential that a drain- 
age ditch should be provided at the lower end of the 
field to serve as an outlet for the tiles, which should be 
so arranged that they can be drained during the winter, 
as otherwise they might be cracked by the freezing of 
the water that they would contain. Upon stiff soils 
with impervious hardpan, the lines of tile can be placed 
considerably deeper. 

In order to sub-irrigate a tract with a wind- 
mill, one should have a reservoir or tank that will hold 
at least 800 or 1000 barrels, and unless one is reasonably 
sure of sufficient wind to fill the tank within three days 
at all times throughout the summer, a corresponding 
increase would be necessary. A reservoir that will hold 
3000 or 4000 barrels would, in many places, be advisable. 
The amount of water and the frequency of application 
would depend upon soil condition and the character of 
the season, but ordinarily the application of 800 or 1000 
barrels of water to the acre at intervals of six or seven 
days in spring and two or three days during the hot, dry 
weather of summer, would probably suffice. 

The Gravel Trench. This plan is very simple 
and quite cheap. Trenches may be dug six or eight 
inches wide and two feet deep, running with the slope of 
the land, and forty or fifty feet apart, connecting at the 
upper end with a head ditch somewhat wider than the 
others. Into these trenches put six to eight inches of 
gravel or crushed stone and then fill with earth. If for 
orchards, the trenches could be dug so as to go under 



IRRIGATION FARMING. 

each row of trees if the slope permitted. We believe 
this plan will work as well as tiling, and to many who 
are near gravel beds it will be much cheaper. Any 
blossom rock or detached shale often found on plowed 
ground can be used for this purpose, and cobblestones 
or kidney rock would be just the thing. We believe a 
trench plow has been invented for opening the trenches, 
and the work ought to be done late in the fall or during 
the mild days of winter, when nothing more urgent is 
pressing. Brickbats, such as are found around the kilns 
in a brickyard, could be placed in the trenches and would 
answer admirably. The only expense connected with 
the work would be that of labor, and the experiment 
ought to pay well. 

Father Cole's Plan. The late Honorable A. N. 
Cole, of Wellsville, New York, inaugurated a system of 




FIG. 94. FATHEK POLE'S SYSTEM. 



trench irrigation which proved quite a success and elic- 
ited so much enthusiasm from the old gentleman that 
he wrote a book on the subject in 1885, and a year or 
two later the author had the pleasure of visiting Father 
Cole and personally examining his work at "The Home 
on the Hillside." His scheme was substantially that 
described under the preceding caption, and while he 
put in more time and labor in the detail and made his 
trenches in a more pretentious way, he always said that 
the extra work repaid him well. A sectional view of 
Father Cole's works is given in Figure 94. 



SUB-IRRIGATION AND SUBS01LING. 289 

In his book, "The New Agriculture, " the following 
description appears: "The land is a hillside, along the 
eastern front of which runs a wayside gutter. Parallel 
with this and from forty to fifty feet apart, and across 
the land to its highest boundary, he caused a series of 
trenches two and a half feet wide and four and a half to 
five feet deep to be dug, and filled to within eighteen 
inches of the surface with coarse large stones, covered 
with loose flat stones, for subterranean water reservoirs; 
these were connected by numerous shallow and smaller 
trenches partially filled with small stones at about eight- 
een inches from the surface, designed to carry off all 
surface water." The water which naturally fell from 
the heavens was caught in these trenches and filtered 
one from the other in such a way as to render the sub- 
soil constantly moist and friable. Mr. Cole said: " The 
advantage of such a system for market gardening will 
commend itself to those who grow or aim to grow large 
and valuable crops upon small areas of land." 

Greenhouse Irrigation. This is the modern idea 
in greenhouse construction, and the writer is impressed 
with the system described by Professor L. A. Taft, in 
the American Agriculturist, and shown by sectional view 
in Figure 95. 

A durable greenhouse bench for sub-irrigation can 
be built of cement, at small cost, especially if it is to be 
at the same level as the wall. When the bed is desired 
at the hight of three or more feet, supports must be pro- 
vided. When the natural level of the soil is where the 
bottom of the bed should come, one has only to excavate 
walks, and run up the walls. In a house twenty feet 
wide it will be easier to make two wide benches, with a 
walk in the center and two quite narrow ones next to 
the outer walls of the house. Having provided for 
benches, the sub-irrigation may be secured by means of 
two or three rows of two and one-half inch drain tiles 
19 



IRRIGATION FARMTXG. 

laid lengthwise of each bed. If the beds are long, it 
will be well to have a slope at least one inch in thirty 
feet from the point where the water is admitted. To 
avoid the over-saturation of the soil, the lower ends of 
the tiles can extend beyond the ends of the beds, and be 
so arranged that they can be closed while the water is 
being admitted, and opened so as to allow all surplus to 
drain off when a suflicient time has been given the soil 
to take up the needed water. In this way the soil can 
also be well aerated, and if bottom heat is desired, one 




FIG. 95. GREENftOUSE IRRIGATION. 

has only to run steam or hot water pipes through the 
tiles. 

When the beds are to be irrigated, water is poured 
quickly into the ends of the rows of the tiles, so that it 
will run the entire length of each row at once, and soak 
out slowly and uniformly through the adjacent soil ; 
watering is to be done as often as the plants require it, 
and their needs are learned in the same manner as by 
surface watering, but the applications need not be so 
frequent as by the old plan. It may readily be seen that 
this system has some advantages. Heretofore the diffi- 



SUB-IRRIGATION AND SUBSOILING. 291 

culty has been that when the moisture was applied 
directly on the plants, the result was rot or mildew, 
lettuce being attacked by fungus severely in some in- 
stances, which is believed to be due to the frequent 
application of water to the foliage. 

Subsoiling. The greatest step in modern agri- 
cultural advancement, especially in the arid regions of 
the west, where the soil is of a tenacious hardpan 
character, is subsoiling. Every thoughtful farmer has 
known for years that if he had a plow that would stir 
the under soil from eighteen inches to two feet deep it 
would be the most desirable tool on the farm. But the 
trouble has been that no such tool could be found that 
could be used in hard subsoil with any reasonable 
amount of power. 

Recently a number of subsoil plows have been in- 
vented which are simple and inexpensive, and peculiarly 
adapted to run deep in the hardest subsoil with a mod- 
erate amount of power. In reasonably hard subsoil two 
good horses have run a subsoiler fourteen inches below 
the bottom of the furrow of a common stirring plow. 
Allowing six inches as the depth which stirring plows 
run, this makes twenty inches from the surface that is 
broken up and made mellow by the subsoiler. 

This would permit the heaviest rains to quickly go 
down from the surface, and to be retained far enough below 
to avoid being evaporated soon by the hot sun, and 
would be exactly in the right place for the growing 
crops. Besides, the next time the same ground was sub- 
soiled it would be comparatively an easy job to go from 
four to six inches deeper, making two feet or more of 
mellow soil, which would hold an immense amount of 
water, so that during the rainiest seasons the water 
would not run off into the rivers. In describing his ex- 
perience with a subsoiler in Allen county, Kansar, 
Clarence J. Norton wrote : 



293 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

"When I received my plow from the manufacturer 
I made no change of adjustment, as it was set for three 
horses, and I reasoned that the maker knew how it 
ought to be run, and I did not have to make any change 
at all. The plow went sixteen inches deep from the sur- 
face and pulled very hard on the team. I went one 
round after many stops to rest, and then changed double- 
trees and put on a big Percheron stallion. They now 
went easier, but in a short time I became aware that the 
enormous strain was too much to keep up long, so I 
lowered the shoe to make the plow run about fourteen 
inches in depth, plowing every two feet apart. This is 
all the change I made, except to raise the shoe again for 
twenty inches when cross-plowing. 

"The plow does not throw out any earth at all. It 
simply lifts up the ground about four inches, raising it 
most at the plow and for two feet each way, when, of 
course, the ground splits or cracks in front of the stand- 
ard and allows the inch and a half standard to pass 
through, only leaving just such a track as a ground mole 
leaves, excepting that this plow mole goes fourteen inch- 
es deep. When I returned four feet away, the whole 
ground between the plow marks was raised up, loosened 
or stirred, being raised the most where the plow had 
gone, and at the two-foot point between, it hud tin- 
appearance of a dead furrow; but when this was also 
plowed into it was raised just as high as the rest. The 
earth .seemed to be moved ahead a little and raised up 
about four inches. It was wonderfully mellow and could 
have been harrowed down to a fine seedbed. I plowed 
three acres in one and one-half days, and then cross- 
plowed it, going every two and one-half feet apart and 
twenty inches deep. 

" When I came to cross-plow I discovered the change 
even more marked. I jl<'\\< <l from one i-nd in the form 
of a back furrow, going every five feet, or a.s close as t IK- 



SUB-IRRIGATION AND SUBSOILING. 293 

plow would run with the near horse close to the last 
mark. After this back furrow laud became about thirty 
feet wide I split the marks going one way, and came 
back five feet away as before, thus always turning one 
way; and as I leaned the plow only a little I plowed 
around the ends, which in fact were the best plowed. 
This second plowing was done to the hardpan but not 
in it. The soil was real moist for six inches down, when 
from there to the hardpan it was as dry as blotting 
paper, and had probably not been wet for two years or 
more. Now this earth is at least six to eight inches 
higher than before, and will take in all the rain it can 
hold, and the lower soil in drying out again will of 
necessity supply the surface with moisture, as the gumbo 
below it is waterproof." 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE COMMON LAW OF IRRIGATION. 

BY JUDGE T. C. BROWX, GUXMSON, COLORADO. 

Early in the history of agricultura in the arid 
regions of the west, it became apparent that the com- 
mon law, rules and principles of riparian owners!) ip 
could not obtain ; such laws would have been unjust, 
and were wholly unsuited to the condition of affairs 
ilu-re found to exist, and the people set about to discover 
principles and formulate rules which might be more 
just aud equitable. The questions are numerous and 
complex, the whole subject is fraught with problems 
most difficult, new theories are constantly arising, and 
the greatest diversity of views exists among those who 
have given years of close and careful study to the sub- 
ject ; and how far the people have succeeded in their 
efforts to solve these questions can only be determined 
by a careful examination of the statutes and decisions of 
those States and Territories where the subject of irriga- 
tion has commanded the attention of profound thinkers 
and able, jurists. The writer's humble opinion is that 
the laws upon these subjects are far from perfect in any 
section of the arid country, and he furthermore believes 
that many years of evolution and change in these laws 
will be necessary before anything approaching a jusi 
exposition of the principle applicable will assume a defi- 
nite form. 

The Colorado Constitution, Sec. 5, Art. XVI, declares 
the vater of every natural stream to be the property of 
the public, and Section <; in substance gives the prior 

294 



THE COMMON LAW OF IRRIGATION. *'.)."> 

right to the prior appropriator to beneficial use. The 
underlying principle seems to bo that the water of all 
natural streams belongs to the public until appropriated 
to beneficial use, and then to the prior appropriator, 
and these principles with slight variations more or less 
\\cll defined are the basis of the laws upon the subject in 
other States and Territories, where for natural reasons 
the rules of the common law do not obtain. 

The common law rules and principles of riparian 
ownership never obtained in Colorado. The Constitu- 
tion, Sees. 5 and 6, Art. XVI, declaring the waters 
of all natural streams to be the property of the public 
until appropriated to beneficial use, and that it then 
belongs to the prior appropriator, is only declaratory of 
an unwritten law which existed long prior to any legis- 
lation or judicial decision upon the subject, and arose 
from the peculiar conditions of soil and climate. 

Schilling rs. Rominger, 4 Col. 103 

Thomas rs. (Uiirand, 6 Id. 532 

Coffin vs. Left Hand Ditch Co., Id. 446 

And the various acts of Congress upon the subject 
are But the recognition of a pre-existing right, and not 
the establishment of a new one. 

Broder vs. Water Co., 101 U. S. 276 

Waters in the various streams of this climate acquire 
a value unknown in moister climates ; the right to its 
use is not a mere incident to the soil, but rises to the 
dignity of a distinct usufructuary estate. 

Coffin r.s. Left Hand Ditch Co., Supra. 

Rominger rs. Squires, 9 Colo. 329 

It may be safely said that in all the States and Ter- 
ritories where, as in Colorado, these rights are of pecul- 
iar and paramount importance, they are treated as realty. 
The Colorado Legislature in 1893 (L. 93 p. 293) enacted 
that thereafter all conveyances of such rights should be 



290 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

by deed with usual formalities; but in ordinary cases 
such was probably the law before the enactment. 

Yoiiker vs. Nichols, 1 Col. 551 

Hill rs. Newman, 5 Col. -445 

Schilling vs. Rominger, 4 Col. 100 

Barkley vs. Tickele, _' Mont. 59 

Smith vs. O'Hara, 43 Cal. 371 

The right when vested may in some cases be appur- 
tenant to the soil upon which it is used, but generally it 
is separate and distinct from the ownership of the land, 
and a conveyance of the latter would not carry the water 
right, unless mentioned in the deed ; the right, though 
it can only be acquired by appropriation and use, may, 
when acquired, be sold, transferred to and used upon 
other lands. 

Fuller vs. Swan River P. M. Co., 12 Col. 17 

The place of use as well as the point of diversion 
may be changed, when such change works no injury to 
others. 

Fuller vs. Swan River P. M. Co., Supra 

The right is in no way dependent upon the locus of 
its application to the beneficial and designed. 

Hammond vs. Rose, 11 Col. 526 

The lands irrigated need not be on the banks, nor 
even in the vicinity of the stream from which the water 
is taken. The water may be conducted across a water- 
shed and onto a different drainage and yet the right is 
preserved. 

Coffin vs. Left Hand Ditch Co., Supra 

The right is absolute and unqualified so long as it 
exists. It may be lost by abandonment. 

Siber vs. Frink, 7 Col. 154 

Dorr vs. Hammond, M. 83 

Burnham vs. Freeman, 11 Id. 601 

But proof of non-user as evidence of abandonment 
must be strong; failure for an unreasonable length of 



THE COMMOX LAW OF IRRIGATION. 



time to use the water may afford a presumption of inten- 
tion to abandon the right, still such presumption may be 
overcome by satisfactory proofs. 

Siber vs. Frink, Supra 

Aii intention to abandon may be shown in various 
ways. It lias been held that an attempted verbal trans- 
fer or sale of the right operates as an abandonment, as 
it conveys nothing and manifests an intention to part 
with the right. 

Smith vs. O'Hivra and Durkley vs. Tickele, Supra 

But it must be borne in mind that as abandonment 
is a question of intention, the acts of the party to be 
conclusive (unless there be some element of estoppel) 
must be so very strong as to scarcely be susceptible of 
explanation. The party will not be held to have sur- 
rendered a valuable right, except upon evidence reason- 
ably clear and satisfactory. 

Rominger vs. Squires, Supra 

Doubtless a party may also lose his right by non- 
use, and as the right is regarded as realty, it is probable 
that by analogy, at least, the laws of limitation and pre- 
scription apply ; it seems that acquiescence in adverse 
use during the period fixed by the statutes of limitation 
would bar the right. 

Til ion Water Co. vs. Crary, 25 Cul. 504 

Davis vs. Gale, 32 Id. 26 

Smith vs. Logan, 18 Nev. 149 

Woolman vs. Garringer, 1 Mont. 535 

Crandal vs. Woods, 8 Cal. 136 

The continual use of water for beneficial purposes is 
essential to the existence of the right ; and when the 
right is lost either by abandonment or non-use, it goes 
either to the next prior appropriator or reverts to the 
public. 



298 IRRIGATION IAK.MIXG. 

It is not believed that a user for any length of time 
will give title by prescription or limitation as against the 
Government. 

Union Ms. M. Co. rtt. Ferris, 2 Saw. 176 

Matlhrus <>-. I-Vnva, 4") Cal. 51 

Ogbnrn r.-i. (< nuer, 46 Id. 340 

Van Sickle r#. Mains, 7 Xev. 24t 

The right in this respect is of much the same nature 
as the possessory right to public lands, and when aban- 
doned it reverts to the Government and is subject to 
appropriation by anyone else ; or he may return, reap- 
propriate and acquire all his original rights, if the claim 
of no one else intervenes. 

Tucker rs. Jones, 19 Pac. Rep. (Mont.) 571 

It was never designed that these rights should be 
held without use for beneficial purpose, and in this a 
" water right," so-called, lacks one of the qualities of 
realty, or title to the land. It is probable that any one 
possessing a water right and failing to use the same for 
a continuous period equal to that of the statute of limi- 
tations, would lose the right, but if at any time during 
that period he had used it the right would still exist ; 
and herein is a defect in the law, for no one having 
acquired so valuable a right should be permitted to with- 
hold the use from others, unless he use the same him- 
self, and even if the law would permit others to con- 
demn the right the remedy would, in most cases, be 
tedious, expensive, and barren of benefit. The principle 
herein announced, that the existence of the right de- 
pends upon the user, is in consonance with the constitu- 
tion, and all reasoning upon the subject ; but the courts, 
by way of construction, give the possessor of the riirht 
the privilege of non-user, and thus nullify the spirit of 
the law. The loss of his right is made to depend upon 
his intention, i. e., abandonment, when he should be 
held to a reasonably continuous use of the right, or allow 



THE COMMON LAW OF IRRIGATION. 299 

it to revert to the public. In the present condition of 
the law in Colorado, as established by these decisions, 
wi'iv it not for the legal and physical impossibility of 
preventing the water of natural streams from being used 
by settlers who need the same for irrigation, a monopoly 
of non-using proprietors could, and might bo, main- 
tained, to the serious detriment of the agricultural inter- 
ests of the State, and an express statute of limitation 
upon this subject would avert any evil from the source 
indicated. One holding a water right should be required 
to use the same for a beneficial purpose every year or 
else forfeit his right. 

Acquisition of the Right. The right can only 
be acquired by appropriation and application to beneficial 
use, and the true test is the successful application to the 
beneficial use designed ; and the method or means of 
diverting or carrying the same is immaterial. 

Thomas vs. Guinarcl, 6 Col. 533 

Farmers H. L. Canal & R. R. Co. vs. Southworth, 13 Id. 114 

An erroneous notion for some time prevailed that 
the construction of a ditch with a given capacity was 
equivalent to the appropriation of water to the capacity 
of the ditch, but recent decisions have exploded that 
idea. A party may employ any means he chooses to 
conduct the water from the stream to the lands irri- 
gated ; open physical acts, such as the construction of a 
ditch, flume, or other conduit is usually evidence of, but 
does not constitute, appropriation. But our courts have, 
by a line of decisions, established what may be termed 
constructive as distinguished from actual appropriation. 

Siber vs. Frink, Supra 

Larimer Co. Res. Co. vs. People, 8 Col. 617 

Wheeler vs. North Col. Irr Co., 10 Id. 588 

Farmers' H. L. C. & R. Co. vs. Southworth, 13 Id. 115 

These decisions have led to much confusion and 
uncertainty, and the doctrine will be fruitful of litiga- 



300 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

tion. It is said that when a person commences the con- 
struction of a ditch, tapping a stream and thereafter 
within a reasonable time completes his ditch and diverts 
and applies the water to beneficial use, his right thus 
acquired relates back to the time of the commencement 
of the construction of the ditch. The Constitution 
seems to give the right to the first actual appropriator to 
beneficial use, but the courts have apparently engrafted 
a new principle upon that instrument the term "rea- 
sonable time," uncertain and indefinite in itself, becomes 
more so when applied to the various cases which arise 
under these laws. No man knows or can know what is 
a ''reasonable time" in a given case until the courts 
have passed upon the case. What might be considered 
reasonable in one case might be considered unreasonable 
in another, even under circumstances somewhat similar. 
"Reasonable diligence" is said not to imply unusual or 
extraordinary effort. It is also said that sickness and 
lack of pecuniary means, being matters incident to the 
person and not to the enterprise, will not excuse great 
delay, and hence it follows that health and wealth, being 
also incident to the person only, are not matters to be 
considered, and the difficulty is that there is no fixed 
standard or rule by which the claimant may be governed 
in determining what is or would be considered "reason- 
able time" or "reasonable diligence." 

The Use Must be Beneficial. The use must 
be truly beneficial, and the appropriation must not be 
excessive, nor for speculative purposes. And in deter- 
mining these questions the amount of water appropri- 
ated, the use to which the same is applied, the quantity 
of land, character of soil, etc., are to be considered. 

Conibs vs. A. D. Co., 17 Col. 

The character, value and extent of the crops, and 
their need of water for irrigation, should also be consid- 



THE COMMON LAW OF IRRIGATION. 301 

ered, and the waste of any ditch, flume, pipe line, or 
other conduit, should be the loss of the claimant. 

"Natural streams" are not easily defined in term.- 
which will admit of universal application. It is said 
that to constitute a water course there must be a defined 
channel with bed and banks. 

Humes rs. Sabron, 10 Nev. 217 

sininioiids rs. Winters (Oregon), 27 Tac. Rep. 7 

liarkley r*. Wilcox, 86 N. Y. 143 

Cibbs rs. Williams, 25 Kansas. 220 

Jeffers vs. JeiTers, 107 N. Y. 651 

But whatever definition may be adopted it is ap- 
parent that the term "natural stream," as used in the 
Colorado Constitution, refers more particularly to the 
character and source of supply than to the form of the 
stream. The principal source and origin is the melting 
of snows on the mountain ranges. These waters assume 
different forms, sometimes as springs, rivulets, ponds 
and lakes, depending upon the character of the ground 
through or over which they pass. Sometimes these wa- 
ters percolate through the ground and pass unseen for 
miles and then appear as springs. These are as a rule 
feeders of the natural streams and irt contemplation of 
law are a part of them, and to divert the waters from a 
spring or lake which is the source of supply of a natural 
stream could scarcely be distinguished from the appro- 
priation of water from the stream itself. How far the 
owner of lands upon which springs arise may be per- 
mitted to use the water, allowing it to flow on after use, 
would no doubt depend upon the character and amount 
of the land, and the nature of the spring or springs. 
We are now referring to what may be termed natural as 
distinguished from artificial springs, produced by waste 
or seepage water, escaping from reservoirs, ditches or 
canals, or the surplus produced by irrigation. The right 
to these waters is defined by statute. By an act of the Col- 
orado Legislature of 1889, Act LXXXIX, p. 215, a prior 



302 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

right to the use of seepage or spring waters is given to 
the person upon whose lands the same first rises, but the 
term spring waters as used in the act doubtless refers to 
artificial springs, produced by seepage or waste water. 
If however it should be held to apply to natural springs, 
it might be of doubtful constitutionality. Anything 
which tends to diminish the source of supply water in 
a natural stream to the detriment of prior appropria- 
tors is prohibited, hence the digging of wells close to a 
stream, so that the water from the stream percolates into 
the same, is held to be but indirectly appropriating water 
from the stream. 

McClellnn r*. Hurdle, 33 Pac. Rep. Col. App. 

And so if a source or supply of a natural stream 
were a lake, to take water from the lake would be an in- 
fringement of the rights of prior appropriators from the 
stream. Any body of water in whatever form, originat- 
ing from natural causes, and supplying and having an 
outlet through a stream with well-defined channel, i- ;i 
part of a " natural stream," and the waters are subject 
to appropriation in the same manner. 

Carrier's Diversion. Canals or common carriers 
are permitted to divert water from streams, to be appro- 
priated by their patrons, and many thousand of acres of 
valuable lands are irrigated and made productive ly 
this means, where otherwise it would be impracticable. 
In such case the right of use is in the consumer. Tho 
Tamil Company is in one sense a quasi public servant, 
and is entitled to reasonable compensation for the car- 
riage. When a canal is commenced and completed 
within " reasonable time," the consumers who thereafter, 
wit hin a " reasonable time," appropriate waters therefrom 
to beneficial use, have priorities dating from the carrier's 
diversion. 

Ditch Rights. The right of way for ditches is 
easily and oftentimes confused with water rights the 



THE COMMON LAW OF IRRIGATION. In;} 



former is no more or less than a right of way or 
ment through lands, but in some cases as evidence of 
appropriation, furnish the measure of the water right. 
The Colorado Statutes provide for a record of ditch 
statements and the Legislatures have gone so far as to 
declare that the construction of a ditch and record of ji 
statement shall give priority of right to water, but nil 
such statutes are in that respect unconstitutional. 

Adjudication of Priorities. The Colorado Stat- 
utes provide a method for the adjudication of priorities 
as between claimants of water from the same stream; and 
many attempts have been made by the courts to carry 
out these laws, but with little success and unsatisfactory 
results, mainly from the fact that the law is imperfect, 
vague and indefinite, and the courts in attempting to 
follow its provisions have lost sight of constitutional 
restrictions. In many instances the construction and 
record of a ditch right was treated as equivalent to the 
appropriation of water to the extent of the capacity of 
the ditch, and in some instances parties were decreed 
priorities, to take effect upon future contingency, when 
an actual appropriation to beneficial use in each case 
should have been the basis of the decree. 

Rights Existing in Parole. Under the Colo- 
rado system, water rights exist almost exclusively in 
parole, and hence there is the greatest latitude for dis- 
putes and litigation. Since these rights have been de- 
clared to be in the nature of "realty," a code of laws 
should be enacted requiring a complete public record to 
be kept of each water right. 



GLOSSARY OF IRRIGATION TERMS. 



Acequia Spanish name for an irrigating canal. 

Acre Foot Amount of water covering one acre, one foot 

ill depth. 

Adit A tunnel for carrying water. 
Anchor Piles driven in a channel, upon which to rest a 

superstructure. 

Aqueduct A water conduit for long distances. 
Artesian Self-flowing deep wells. 

Asbestine A system of underground piping used in sub- 
irrigation. 

Azarbes Spanish term for channel. 
Backsetting Replowing a furrow back into its original 

position ; damming streams for irrigation by percolation. 
Ha si iis Water spaces made around trees for irrigation. 
Bench Flume A wooden conduit laid upon benches or sill.-*. 
Bench Mark A monument from which differences of l.-vt-l 

are measured. 

Bents Sections of framework or trellises used in flume work. 
Berme The inner slope of embankments, so graded a> to 

prevent earth from sliding. 

Bet-oil Concrete of lime, sand and hydraulic cement. 
Billahoilg Australian term for a lake or lagoon. 
Border A system of ridges thrown up to hold water \\i.hin 

prescribed limits. 
Breakwater A structure to protect works from the tmcc 

<>f waves. 
Bulkhead The head flume of a ditch or canal ; the gate\\ ay 

at the hcadworks. 

Canal A large irrigating ditch ; the main water course. 
< anvas Daill A coarse fal>ric apron u>ed ;i> a check ill 

laterals. 

304 



GLOSSARY OF IRRIGATION TERMS. 305 

Catchment Extent of country that may be utilized in 

drawing water to a certain point, as a reservoir; also 

catchment area. 
Check An impediment placed in a lateral to divert water 

out upon the land. 

Conduit An aqueduct for passing water ; a tube or pipe. 
Contour The high level line describing the course of a 

canal. 
Crown Arch An arched plate serving as a keystone in a 

masonry curved dam. 
Cylinder An enlarged mechanism for a piston at the bottom 

of a pump in a well. 
Dam A barrier to confine the flow of a stream to raise its 

level ; an embankment of a reservoir. 
Detritus Disintegrated material of any kind flowing in a 

ditch ; silt or alluvial deposit. 
Dike An embankment for holding water. 
Ditch An artificial water course, one somewhat smaller than 

a canal. 
Ditching Machine An implement for excavating canals, 

etc. 

Diversion Dam A structure in a natural stream for divert- 
ing the water into a canal. 
Division Box A contrivance for dividing or apportioning 

water to consumers. 

Drop Box An arrangement in a canal for lowering or re- 
ducing the grade. 
Duty of Water Service required of water in supplying 

land ; the tax to which water is put in irrigating. 
Evaporation The loss of water by vaporizing. 
Fellah An Egyptian laborer, cultivator or irrigator. 
Filament The center course of a current in a stream 
Fill-Bank Material used in constructing embankments. 
Filtration Act of filtering, as water through soil. 
Flights A continuous series of lifting buckets or plates in 

a water elevator. 
Float An object thrown into a stream to calculate water 

velocity ; a water-wheel paddle. 
20 



306 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Flume A structure or box for conducting water across de- 
pressions or uneven places. 
Fly-Off Evaporation of water as compared with run-off 

waters. 
Fore Bay That part of a canal where the water enters the 

headgate. 
Fountain-Head Original source ; a spring from which 

water flows. 

Grade The degree of inclination in a canal. 
Grade Level An instrument for determining the slope of 

a water course. 

Gradient Rate of variation in the grade of a ditch. 
Head The measure of stored up or gathered force ready to 

be used in irrigating ; the hight of a body of water in 

covering land, as by flooding. 
Head Bay See fore bay. 
Head Ditch A lateral running along the highest level of 

land to be irrigated. 

Headgate The up-stream gate of a canal ; a water or flood- 
gate. 
Hydraulic Engineer One skilled in hydraulics and the 

construction of water ways. 
Hydraulic Ram An automatic device for raising water by 

its own power. 
Hydraulics The science of liquids, especially of water in. 

motion. 

Hydrometric Sluice A certain kind of measuring box. 
Intake The point in a stream where a canal is taken out. 
Inundation Overflowing or covering land with water. 
Irrigaiit An irrigating ditch. 
Irrigation The process of watering agricultural lands by 

artificial means. 

Irrigator A cart for watering crops ; one who irrigates. 
Lateral A side ditch ; the small service line leading from a. 

supply ditch or canal. 
Levee A border or embankment. 
LIH-S.S A deposit of fine clay loam or very fine sand ; th- 

-dimeiit found in canaU 



GLOSSARY OF IRRIGATION TERMS. 307 

Measuring Box A device set in ditches for apportioning. 

water to consumers. 

3Iiner's Inch A unit of water measurement. 
Module A French device for measuring water. 
M udsill The structure upon which rests the floor of a head- 
gate. 
Nilometer A gauge for measuring and recording the rise 

and fall of streams. 

Overfall The apron of a weir or dam. 
Penstock A pipe for supplying water ; a sluice or conduit 

for controlling the discharge of water. 
Percolation Filtration of water through the soil. 
Phreatic Underground, as the sources of wells ; phreatic 

waters. 

Pipe-Line A system of pipe or conduit for conveying water. 
Points Perforated pipes driven into the earth to secure 

water for pumps. 

Porosity Porous condition or possessing pores. 
Puddle To line, as canal banks with clay to render water- 
tight ; preparing plants for transplanting. 
Reduction Box A device for decreasing the flow of a, 

canal. 
Reservoir A basin for collecting and impounding water; 

a storage lake or pond. 
Rill A small stream or delicate furrow. 
Riparian Pertaining to the banks of a river. 
Riprap Broken stone arranged in beds for protecting 

embankments. 
Rim-Off Those waters which escape by natural courses on 

the earth's surface ; those waters which do not " fly-off." 
Sakiyeh A rude water wheel used in Egypt. 
Sand Gate An appliance for diverting sand from a canal. 
Second Foot A unit of water measure ; the discharge of 

one cubic foot a second. 
Seepage Oozing or percolation of water in soil ; also spelled 

seapage and sipage. 

Sewage The discharge from sewers ; waste water. 
Shadoof An oriental device similar to a well-sweep. 



308 IRRIGATION FARMING. 

Sheet-Piling Thick planking driven as piles ; the sides of 

coffer-dams. 

Silt Detritus or floating matter in a ditch ; sediment. 
Siplioii A bent pipe or tube, or even a box, for drawing 

water by atmospheric pressure ; also syphon. 
Slope The grade of a ditch. 
Sluice An artificial channel for carrying water, with gates 

or valves. 

Spillway A waste weir or overflow. 
Staudpipe An elevated tap for draining water from a 

main ; a tower-like pipe at a reservoir into which water is 

pumped to give it a head. 
Storm Water That which falls in catchments during 

freshets. 

Strut A compression brace in a framework, as a truss. 
Subbing Water percolating near the surface and utilized in 

sub-irrigation. 
Sub-Irrigation Watering land through pipes or channels 

below the surface. 

Subsidiary Canals Those that are secondary. 
Subsoiling To break up ; to loosen the subsoil. 
Tail-Race A wasteway from a canal. 
Tamp To pack with earth or other materials. 
Target An instrument used as a flag in directing 

surveyors. 

Terreplein The level fill or surface of earth made to con- 
nect with flumes, etc. 
Turiibeam A sort of treadmill device used in oriental 

lands for raising water. 
Tympanum A large drum wheel for raising water from a 

running stream. 

Underflow Currents of water below the earth's surface. 
Warping A method of retaining water by means of banks 

in overflows, as of tides along the ocean shore. 
\Vaste Gate An outlet for discharging water from a canal 

<>r storage pond. 
Water Register An instrument for measuring the flow of 

streams. 



GLOSSARY OF IRRIGATION TERMS. 309 

Water Right A privilege; the ri-ht toihe po -session and 

use of water 1W irri-atin^. 
Water Witchery Art of discovering th underground 

presence of water by aid of divining rod-. 
AVeir A sort of dam placed in a stream for divot ing or 

measuring water. 
Well A source of water supply; a hollow tower in :i 

reservoir. 
Wind Rustler A crude apparatus serving the purpose of a 

windmill. 
Wing" Dam A jetty or barrier built into a stream to deflect 

the current. 
Zaiijero Suauisk term for a ditck walker or overseer. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Alfalfa 222 

Alfalfa soils 223 

Diseases and enemies 237 

Feeding value 236 

Fertilizing-elements 234 

Harvesting 230 

Hoove or bloat 240 

Irrigating 227 

. Preparing the land 224 

Seed crop 233 

Seeding 225 

Alkali Treatment of 29 

Chemical antidotes 33 

Effects of 31 

Eradication by vegetable 

growth 34 

Flooding system 33 

Formation of salts 30 

Remedies for 32 

Soi Is containing 30 

Waters carrying 31 

Canal Construction 42 

Cementing canals 59 

Cost of construction 45 

Curves and friction 50 

Ditchine methods 45 

Ditch outlets. : 57 

Drop and reduction box 4 
Evaporation and seepage... ' 

Form and capacity 4 

< ' ra&M and slopes 47 

Headeates ' 

Land invention 

Laterals building the * 

1. nying out canals * 

Sand eat es * 

Waste gates " 

Devices. Appliances and Con- 
trivances; 268 

Ait.-siau drilling outfit 271 

Artesian well machinery... 2f>9 

Bucket elevator 274 

Can VMS dam 27f 

Liquid manuring 280 

Sewage system 2f>8 

Siphon elevator 273 

Transplanting machine 279 

Tri-laterai canvas dam 277 

rpliill si). lion 272 

\\.tt. riim cart 280 

Water gate 278 



Pajte. 

Duty and Measurement 108 

California standard 112 

California weir system 124 

Capacity of pipes 12"> 

Current meter 121 

Divisors 115 

Evaporation 113 

Gauging large streams 120 

Irrigation head Ill 

Miner's inch 115 

Module or measuring boxes 116 

Numerical expression 109 

Register.. .' 123 

Rules 125 

Weirs 117 

Weir table 120 

Flumes and their Structure l'3 

Construction !<5 

Curves and grades 14 

Fluming across a river 101 

Iron flumes 104 

Siphons lot! 

History of Irrigation 1 

Irrigation of Fiald Crops 152 

Barley 157 

Beans 161 

Beets sugar 171 

Canaigre 173 

Corn K7 

Cotton ..^. 168 

Egyptian corn !"' 

Flax 1 4 

(iraiiilields L'4 

Hemp 

Hops 

Meadows 

Oats 

Pea*. 

Potatoes "" 

Potatoes sweet 

Rice 

Rye ' 

Tobacco 

Turnips, beets and carrots 
Wheat 

n of the Garden 

Asparagus 

Beet s ... 1 

Cabbage 1** 

Cantaloupes 1 

Carrots and parsnip-. 



INDKX. 



311 



Cauliflower 188 

Celery IT 1 .* 

Cm-umbers is: 

Horse-radish 1S2 

Lettuce, spinach and pars- 
ley 193 

Onions 

ivanuts ll2 

IVas 186 

Pumpkins UK) 

Radishes 1X1 

Hoses 193 

String beans 185 

Sweet corn 191 

Tomatoes 186 

Turnips 1M.' 

Watermelons is.i 

Irrigation of the Orchard i:>4 

Apples 199 

Apricots '2(U 

Cherry 204 

Cultivation l'.)7 

Diagram of an orchard 196 

Lemons and limes 207 

Nursery irrigation 206 

Orange 2<)."> 

Peach 202 

Pear 200 

Planting 195 

Plum 201 

Prunes .. 201 

Quince 200 

Law of Irrigation 294 

Acquisition of the right 2J9 

Adjudication of priorities . 303 

Carrier's diversion 302 

Ditch rights 3)2 

Rights existing in parole. .. 303 
Use must be beneficial 300 

Methods of Applying Water . .. 127 

Hack-setting 146 

Basin system 143 

Borders or checks 144 

Fall and winter irrigation.. 147 

Flooding system 134 

Foreign methods 149 

Furrow or rill system 136 

Hillside methods 146 

Lateral bulkhead 130 

Preparation of l.md. 131 

Sprinkling 145 

Subsidiary canals 129 

Time to irrigate 132 

Underground 11 nines and 
stand pip.'s ... 141 

Pipes for Irrigation Purposes.. 81 

Asbestine system 87 

Cost of pi pes 91 

Grades of iron pipes 83 

Laminated iron pipe. 84 

Pressure of pipes S2 

Steel pipe, K.-, 

Vitrified clay pipe 86 

Wooden stave pipes ss 

Reservoirs and Ponds 62 

Cementing 7; 

Cost and capacity 70 

Construction 66 



Damming a stream 

(Jates and spillways 

II Ydrau lie embankment.... 

Laying <>ni rr-,.-r\ oirs 

Local ion o| n-ser\ <>i is 

.Masonry work 

Storage ponds 

Soils Relation 1<. Irrigation... 

Acids 

Capillary action 

Classes ol 

Clay 

Color and texture 

Gravity 

Gumbo and loam 

Humus 

Nutritive dissemination 

Temperature 

Sub-Irrigation and Snbsoiling.. 

Asbestine F.ysiein 

Father Cole's plan 

Gravel trench 

Greenhouse irrigation 

Subbing 

Subsoiling 

Tiling 

Tympanum wheel 

Vineyard and Small Fruits 

Blackberries 

Capers.- 

Cultivation 

Currants 

Gooseberries 

Irrigation 212, 

Irrigating from waterinains 



Planting 
T 



Planting and cultivating... 

Preparing the soil 

Raspberries 

Sub-irrigation 

Strawberries 

The best soils 

Trellised vineyard 

Water Supply 

Evaporation and run-off 

Phreatic and artesian un- 
derflow 

Reservoirs mud and silt. . . 

Surface supply 

Tunneling for water 

Water witcherv 

Windmills and I'nni PS 

Buyintr a windmill 

Capacity of pumps 

Care of windmills 

Centrifugals 

Compressed air 

Cost'of lifting W.-HIT 

Erecting windmills 

Gasoline engines 

Hurdy-gurdy 

Hydraulic rams 

Power of wind engines 

Pumps 

Repairs of windmills 

The wind rustler 

Vacuum pumps 

Water motors 



74 
19 

22 
27 
19 
90 

23 

21 

22 

i5 

25 

28y 

2K.-I 

287 
289 
283 

291 



214 
216 
210 
215 
215 
21!) 
220 

_'!)'. 

218 
217 
213 
220 
216 
208 
211 
36 



39 

39 

37 

40 

41 

242 

245 

an; 

L'47 



266 

245 

L'li'J 



'J4H 
251 

m '4 

J4' 
254 
259 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Irrigation five thousand years ago, ..... 2 

Irrigation scene on the river Nile, ..... 4 

(irecian tympanum wheel, ...... 8 

Dividing line between desert and orchard, .... i4 

Capillary tubes of soil, ....... 27 

The Jackson level, ........ 43 

Target, .... .... 44 

Drop and reduction box, ....... 48 

Curve of a large canal, ....... 49 

("anal on a hillside, ...... . 51 

Headgate of a canal, ..... . 52 

Top sectional view of Land's sand gate, .... ~4 

Side view of sand gate, .... . 54 

Front view of sand gate, ..... .54 

Automatic waste gate, ...... 56 

Iron outlet gate, ...... .58 

Hear Valley dam, ....... 69 

Sweetwater dam, ........ 71 

A diverting dam, ..'...... 73 

Cross section of hydraulic reservoir, ..... 79 

Riveted iron pipe, ....... 83 

Spiral iron pipe, ........ 84 

Vitrified pipe 8G 

Asbestine pipe machine, ....... 87 

Side view of stave pipe, ...... ss 

Cross section of stave pipe, . . . . . . s;t 

Stave pipe line in position, ...... :>o 

l?ox flume with waste gate, ...... 96 

Flumes across a valley, ...... 97 

Truss flume across a stream, ...... '.is 

Method of elevating a high-Hume trestle, ... 100 

Bench Hume for a large canal, ...... 102 

The great flume over the Pecos river, .... 105 

Side view of small iron Hume, ...... 104 

End view of small iron Hume, ..... 104 

Cross section of large iron flume. ..... 105 

Flume on a rocky ledge, ...... 106 

Flume with overhanging support, . . 106 

Divisor . . 116 

Foote's measuring flume, ....... 117 

Rectangular weir, . .... 118 

The current meter, . . . . . . . . 1'J'J 

Water register 123 



LIS'I OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Pig* 

Bird's-eye view of a model irrigated farm, . .128 

Lateral bulkhead, ..... . 130 

Improved steel laud grader, ...... 131 

Diagonal plow furrows across a field, . 135 

Distributing gates of irrigation oanali ..... 137 

Parallel furrows for a grown orchard, . . . 138 

Double furr.iw on-hard system, . .... HO 

Section ol 'vitrified head ditch, . . . 141 

The basin system, ... .... 1 1.; 

Irrigating with a hose, ... ... 1 :. 

Irrigating a hillside. ... .... 147 

Irrigating a grainlield, . . . . 154 

Irrigating a crop of pot atoeii .... no 

Diagram of garden, . . ... ITti 

Irrigated garden, ........ 177 

lection ol tiled celery bed, 180 

Diagram of an orchard, . ..... 196 

Nursery irrigation, ....... 20(5 

Trellised vineyard, '211 

Alfalfa plant iii bloom, ... . . 223 

Flooding a field of alfalfa, . 229 

Stacking alfalfa wit h a rieker, ... . 231 

Ventilator for alfalfa stack, 233 

Dodder seed, flower and plant, ..... 239 

Trocar used for bloat, ....... 240 

An ideal windmill and reservoir plant, .... 243' 

A windmill plant in operation, ...... 244 

AVind rustler 250 

Cause pump and points, . .... 252 

Irrigation pump cylinder, ...... 252 

Berlin oscillating pump, . .... 253 

Low-lift vacuum pump, ...... 254 

High-lift vacuum pump, ....... 255 

Centrifugal pump, ....... 255 

Hydraulic ram in parts, ....... 256 

Hydraulic engine in operation, ..... 258 

Harvey water motor, . . . . . . . 259 

The hurdy-gurdy, . . . . 260 

Air compressor, ........ 263 

The pneumatic system, ....... 264 

Inverted sewer system, ....... 269 

Artesian well, ........ 270 

Artesian drilling outfit, ....... 271 

Bucket elevator, ........ 275 

The apron dam, ........ 276 

Huntley dam, ........ 277 

Water gate standing position, ...... 279 

Water gate while water is high, ..... 279 

Cistern and liquid manure spreader, ..... 281 

Diagram of sub-irrigated field, ..... 284 

Father Cole's system, ....... 288 

Greenhouse Irrigation, ....... 290 




eston's Standard Works. 



THE END OF THE WORLD. 

A LOVE STORY. 

In Love with a Dutchman. An Explosion. A Farewell. A Counter-irritant. 
At the Castle. The Backwoods Philosopher. Within and Without. Fifteen 
won't Lie. The New Singing-Master. An Oifer of Help. The Coon-dog Argu- 
ment. Two Mistakes. The Spider Spins. The Spider's Web. The Web Broken. 
Jonas Expounds the Subject. The Wrong Pew. The Encounter. The Mother. 
The Steam-Doctor. The Hawk in a New Part. Jonas Expresses His Opinion 
on Dutchmen. Somethin' Ludikerous. The Giant Great-heart. A Chapter of 
Betweens. A Nice Little Game. The Result of an Evening with Gentlemen. 
Waking up an Ugly Customer. August and Norman. Aground. Cynthy, Ann's 
Sacrifice. Julia's Enterprise. The Secret Stairway. The Interview. Getting 
Ready for the End. The Sin of Sanctimony. The Deluge. Scaring a Hawk. 
Jonas takes an Appeal. Selling out. The Last Day and what Happened in it. 
FIT Ever and Ever. The Midnight Alarm. Squaring Accounts. New Plans. 
The Shiveree. 

Price, Postpaid, - - $1.50. 



The Hoosier Schoolmaster. 



A Private Lesson from a Bull-dog. A Spell Coming. Mirandy. Hank, and 
Shocky. Spelling down the Master. The Walk Home. A Night at Pete Jones's. 
Ominous Remarks of Mr. Jones. The Struggle in the Dark. Has God For- 
gotten Shocky ? The Devil of Silence. Miss Martha Hawkins. The Hardshell 
Preacher. A Struggle for the Mastery. A Crisis with Bud. The Church of the 
Best Licks. The Church Militant. A Counsel of War. Odds and Ends. Face 
to Face. God Remembers Shocky. Miss Nancy Sawyer. Pancakes. A Charita- 
ble Institution. The Good Samaritan. Bud Wooing. A Letter and its Conse- 
quences. A Loss and a Gain. The Flight The Trial. " Brother Sodom." The 
Trial Concluded. After the Battle. Into the Light. " How it Came Out." 

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Land and Love. Albert and Katy. Corner Lots. Little Katy's Lover. Catching 

and Getting Caught. Isabel Marlay. Lovers and Lovers Plausaby, Esq., Takes 

a Fatherly Interest. About Several Things. An Adventure. A Shelter. The 

Inhabitant. An Episode. The Return.- Sawney and His old I.ove. A Collision. 

Standing Guard in Vain.- Sawney and Westcott. Rowing. Sailing. Sinking. 

-,'.- Afterwards.- The Mysterv. The Arrest. The Tempter.-The Trial. 

Penitentiary. Mr. Lurton. A Confession. Death. Mr. hurt on's Courtship. 

Unbarred. Isabel. The Last. Words Afterwards. 

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Mushrooms : How to Grow Them. 

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Land Draining;. 

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errors of imperfect construction, and the disappointment that 
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Allen's New American Farm Book. 

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Henderson's Gardening: for Profit. 

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Henderson's Gardening for Pleasure. 

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Johnson's How Crops Grow. 

New Kdition. A Treatise on the Chemical Composition, Structure 
and Life of the Plant. Revised Edition. This book is a guide to 
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structure and modes of development and growth ; of the complex 
organizations of plants, .and the use of the parts; the germination 
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the soil. The book is a valuable one to all real students of agri-ul- 
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STANDARD LOOKS. 3 

Johnson's How Crops Feed. 

A Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil, as related In the 

. Nutrition of Agricultural riants. Thte volume the compan km and 

complement to "How Crops Grow" has been welcomed l>y those 
who appreciate the scientific aspects of agriculture. Illnst rair.l. 
By Prof . Samuel W. Johnson, cloth, i2m<>. -j.oo 

Market Gardening: and Farm Notes. 

By Barnet Lundrelh. Experiences and Observations for both 
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Forest Planting:. 

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Harris* Talks on Manures. 

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Truck Farming: at the South. 

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Sweet Potato Culture. 

Giving full instructions from starting the plants to harvesting and 
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Cloth, 12mo. .60 

Heinrich's Window Flower Garden. 

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Greenhouse Construction. 

By Prof. L. R.Taft. A complete treatise on Greenhouse structures 
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Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants. 

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Henderson's Practical Floriculture. 

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Long's Ornamental Gardening for Americans. 

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The Propagation of Plants. 

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Parsons on the Rose. 

By Samuel 15. Parsons. A treatise on the propagation, culture and 

hisiorx of the rose. NYw ami n-\ is,., I e.lii i..n. lu his \\i.rU upon 
tin- lose, .Mr. Parsonsjias ^athercd up the curious legends concern 

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held in former times. A simple -.-mien classification has 1,,-,-n 
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Henderson's Handbook of Plants. 

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Barry's Fruit Garden. 

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Fulton's Peach Culture. 

This is the only practical guide to Peach Culture 011 the Delaware 
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it rewitteii, by Hon. J. Alexander Fulton, the author, bringing it 
down to date. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50 

Strawberry Culturist. 

By Andrew S. Fuller. Containing the History, Sexuality, Field and 
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Fuller's Small Fruit Culturist. 

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very finely and thoroughly illustrated, and makes an admirable 
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Fuller's Grape Culturist. 

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Quinn's Pear Culture for Profit. 

Teaching How to liaise Tears intelligently, and with the best re- 
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Husmann's American Grape Growing and Wine-Making. 

Uv Ceorge Husmaim of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New 
and enlarged edition. With contributions from well know grape- 
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book is a recognized authority on tke subject. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50 

White's Cranberry Culture. 

Contents: Natural History. History of Cultivation. Choice of 
Location. Preparing the Ground. Planting the Vines. Manage- 
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Picking. Keeping. Profit and Loss. Letters from Practical 
Growers. Insects Injurious to the Cranberry. By Joseph J. White, 
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Fuller's Practical Forestey. 

A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting and Cultivation, with a 
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Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard. 

This Nvork is offered to 1 hose American Farmers and other cultiva- 
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Quinn's Money in the Garden. 

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